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A  FIRST  BOOK  OF 

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IRIGGS  AND  McKINNEY 

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http://www.archive.org/details/firstbookofcompoOObrig 


A  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


BY 


THOMAS  H.  BRIGGS 

INSTRUCTOR   IN    ENGLISH    IN   TEACHERS   COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


ISABEL  McKINNEY 

TEACHER   OF   ENGLISH   IN  THE   EASTERN    ILLINOIS 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


COl'VRIGHT,  1913,  BY  THOMAS  H.  URIGGS 

AND  ISABEL  McKINNEY 

ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 

814.5 


GINN   AND   CUMl'ANV-  I'UO 
I'KILTOKS  •  BOSTON  ■  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  first  book  in  formal  English  composition  is  designed 
to  furnish  material  for  a  two-year  course  ;  it  may  be  followed 
by  a  rhetoric  of  the  conventional  type,  or,  better  still,  by  ad- 
ditional work  on  the  collection  and  organization  of  material 
for  expression  in  long  themes  and  by  a  study  of  the  more 
essential  rhetorical  principles.  The  chief  difference  between 
this  book  and  others  is  its  emphasis  on  the  qualities  of  good 
composition  rather  than  on  the  four  conventional  types,  and 
its  treatment  of  these  qualities  in  a  natural  and  teachable 
order.  By  the  continuous  emphasis  on  sincerity,  definiteness, 
and  the  other  essential  qualities  —  since  these,  while  sepa- 
rable in  thought,  are  not  mutually  exclusive  —  there  is  sought 
a  cumulative  effect,  which  cannot  fail  to  modify  the  habits  of 
pupils.  Since  these  prime  qualities  are  treated  in  this  book 
after  a  plan  carefully  arranged  and  graded  in  difficulty,  the 
chapters,  except,  possibly,  that  on  good  form,  should  be  taught 
in  their  order.  The  material  in  the  chapter  on  good  form  may 
be  distributed  among  other  matters  as  the  teacher  sees  fit. 

The  assignments  are  meant  to  be  definite  enough  to  guide 
the  bewildered  but  not  to  confine  the  adventurous.  They 
will  be  found  especially  to  emphasize  practical  writing ;  for 
example,  letters,  which  are  treated  with  unusual  fullness. 
The  highly  ingenious  teacher  who  can  successfully  carry  on 
work  in  the  production  of  artistic  literature,  such  as  original 
stories,  poems,  and  plays,  needs  no  prescribed  exercises,  but  he 
will  find  a  sound  basis  for  such  composition  in  the  chapters  of 


iv  FIRST  B(X)K  OF  COMPOSFFION 

this  book,  particularly  in  those  on  definiteness  and  variety. 
Su<^<^estive  material  for  models  is  chosen  from  the  themes  of 
pupils  and  from  literature  that  is  within  the  rani^e  of  the 
pupils'  best  reading.  Cicnerally  some  definite  study  of  these 
models  is  outlined,  so  that  the  point  f)f  the  illustration  may 
be  felt.  The  class  discussion  of  this  illustrative  material 
thus  furnishes  additional  oj^portunity  for  valuable  worlv  in 
oral  composition. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  made  for  helpful  suggestions 
from  Mr.  Allan  Abbott,  of  the  Horace  Mann  High  School ; 
Professor  Franklin  T.  Baker,  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University ;  Mrs.  Fausta  F.  Barr,  of  the  Mattoon,  Illinois, 
High  School  ;  Mr,  Samuel  M.  North,  of  the  Baltimore  Poly- 
technic Institute  ;  Mr.  Edgar  D.  Randolph,  of  the  Colorado 
State  Teachers  College ;  Mr.  Benjamin  A.  Heydrick,  High 
School  of  Commerce,.  New  York  ;  and  Professor  James  F. 
Royster,  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina. 

Acknowledgment  is  also  due  to  the  following  publishers, 
who  have  very  kindly  permitted  the  use  of  copyright  matter  : 
D.  Appleton  and  Company,  the  Thomas  Y.  Crowell  Company, 
the  George  H,  Doran  Company,  Doubleday,  Page  and  Com- 
pany, D.  C.  Heath  and  Company,  Henry  Holt  and  Company, 
the  Jolm  Lane  Company,  Little,  Brown  and  Company,  L.  C. 
Page  and  Company,  the  Macmillan  Company,  and  Thomas  B. 
Mosher.  The  selections  from  Burroughs,  Emerson,  Fiske, 
Higginson,  Holmes,  Palmer,  Robinson,  and  Whittier  are 
used  by  permission  of,  and  by  special  arrangement  with,  the 

Houghton  Mifflin  Company, 

T.  H.  B. 

I.  McK. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  SINCERITY I 

II.  GOOD   FORM 10 

A.  Preparation  of  Papers 1 1 

B.  Rules  of  Punctuation  and  Capitalization  ....  13 

C.  Correct  Usage 25 

£>.  Business  Letters 27 

III.  DEFINITENESS 41 

A.  Definite  Subject 43 

B.  Definite  Details 47 

C.  Definite  Point  of  View 48 

B.  Definite  Words 55 

Rules  and  Exercises  in  Good  Form 76 

IV.  INTEREST 83 

A.  Letters 83 

I.  Friendly  Letters 84 

a.  General  Rules  of  Form 85 

/'.  Parts  of  a  Friendly  Letter 86 

II.  F^)Rmal  Letters 95 

III.  Pseudo-Letters 97 

B.  Choice  of  Details 99 

C.  Order  of  Details 107 

Z>.  Proportion ' 112 

£.  Beginnings 115 

F.  Endings 117 

G.  Climax 118 


vi  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

PAGE 

H.  Devices  for  Interest      123 

I.  Conversation 123 

II.  Comparison 12S 

III.  Suggestion      129 

IV.  Contrast 130 

V.  Variety 132 

VI.  Brevity 132 

Rules  and  Exercises  in  Good  Form 134 

V.  UNITY 140 

.-/.  Unity  of  Paragraphs      140 

B.  Unity  of  Notes 147 

I.  Invitations  and  Their  Answers 14S 

II.  Notes  Accompanying  Gifts 152 

III.  Notes  of  Introduction 154 

IV.  Miscellaneous  Notes 155 

C.  Unity  ok  Sentences 156 

I.  Unity  in  Thought 156 

II.  Unity  of  Form 157 

a.  The  Comma  IMunder 157 

b.  Disjoined  Expressions 158 

c.  Lack  of  Co-ordination 160 

(/.  Shifts  in  Construction 165 

Rules  and  Exercises  in  Good  Form 172 

VI.  VARIETY 183 

A.  Variety  in   Words 184 

B.  Variety  through  Direct  and  Indirect  Discourse  .  193 

C.  Variety  in  Sentences 197 

I.  Declarative,  Interrogative,  and    Imperative 

Sentences 197 

II.  Active  and  Passive  Voice 199 

III.  Order  of  Sentence  Ele.ments 200 

IV.  Different  Forms  of  Modifiers 203 

a.  Adjective  Modifiers 203 

/'.  Adverb  Modifiers 204 

V.  Position  of  Modifiers 207 

VI.  Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences 209 

VII.  Simple,  Compound,  and  Complex  Sentences  .  211 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

D.  Variety  in  Paragraphs 216 

I.  Development  by  Details 218 

II.  Development  by  Illustration 219 

III.  Development  Chiefly  by  Explanation    .    .    .  220 

IV.  Development  by  a  Combination  of  Means     .  222 
V.  Development  by  Proof 224 

VI.  Development  by  Cause  and  Result      ....  224 

E.  Variety  in  Tropes 227 

Rules  and  Exercises  in  Good  Form 23c 

VII.  COHERENCE 240 

A.  Coherence  in  Paragraphs  and  Sentences    ....  241 

I.  Order 241 

a.  Of  Sentences 241 

b.  Of  Modifiers 242 

II.  Connectives  and  Words  of  Reference      .    .    .  245 

a.  Guiding  Words 246 

/'.  Pronouns '.  248 

c.  Conjunctions 252 

III.  Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences 262 

IV.  Parallel  Construction 263 

V.  Ellipses 265 

B.  Coherence  in  the  Whole  Composition 268 

C.  Writing     a     Connected     Composition     Based     on 

Reading -70 

I.  Finding  Material 270 

II.  Taking  Notes 272 

III.  Writing  from  Notes 274 

APPENDIX 279 

A.  Symbols  Used  in  Criticizing  Themes 279 

B.  Words  often  Confu.sed 280 

I.  Synonyms  and  Other  Words 2S0 

II.  Homonyms -82 

C.  Principal  Parts  of  Verbs  Often  Misused    ....  284 

D.  One  Thousand  Words  Often  Misspelled      ....  286 

INDEX 297 


A  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER   I 

SINCERITY 

All  that  you  have  to  learn  about  good  speaking  and  good 
writing  might  be  summed  up  in  two  sayings  :  "  Mean  what 
you  say,"  and  "  Say  what  you  mean."  Like  most  important 
commands,  these  are  easier  to  remember  than  to  obey ;  in- 
deed, complete  obedience  to  the  second  —  "Say  what  you 
mean" — involves  the  mastery  of  the  art  of  composition. 
Most  of  the  chapters  of  this  book  are  concerned  with  this 
difficult  art. 

It  is  of  the  first,  however,  — "  Mean  what  you  say,"  —  that 
we  must  first  think.  If  we  are  in  the  habit  of  telling  the 
truth,  obedience  to  this  command  should  not  be  difficult.  If 
we  do  not  mean  what  we  say,  why  should  we  speak  or  write 
at  all  ?  The  first  motive  of  speech,  oral  or  written,  is  sincerity. 
This  motive  does  not,  of  course,  demand  absolute  literalness 
to  bare  facts.  Truth  and  fact  are  synonymous  only  when  we 
are  dealing  with  fact ;  a  novel  like  "  Romola  "  or  a  bit  of  non- 
sense like  "  Alice  in  Wonderland  "  is  quite  as  sincere,  as  true 
in  a  sense,  as  a  psychology  or  a  treatise  on  the  white  rabbit. 
Sincerity  is  being  true  to  ourselves.  We  must  report  as  we 
ourselves  see  or  feel  or  think  ;  and  in  order  to  do  this  we  must 
choose  a  subject  that  we  have  real  thoughts  or  feelings  about, 
and  we  must  use  words  that  are  our  own. 


2  FIRST   I'.OOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  I  — Oral 

SINXERF,    AXD    INSINCERE   COMPOSITION 

Read  aloud  and  compare  these  two  compositions,  both  writ- 
ten b\-  pupils  in  school.  Which  is  sincere  ?  Which  uses  bor- 
rowed thoughts  and  words  not  clearly  understood  ?  Which 
pupil  chose  a  subject  upon  which  he  could  write  sincerely  ? 
Which  subject  is  definite  ?  What  details  give  an  impression 
of  truth  ? 

UNIVERSAL  PEACE 

Universal  Peace  should  reign  throughout  the  world.  Everything 
should  harmonize  and  every  day  it  should  be  carried  out.  All  of  the 
dumb  animals  are  always  happy  and  peaceful,  while  some  people  are 
always  quarrelsome  and  unhappy.  God  made  this  world  for  the 
people  to  live  happy  and  contented  in.  Universal  Peace  of  any  com- 
munity, organization,  district,  school,  or  home  is  that  state  of  affairs 
that  shows  that  all  parties  concerned  are  not  engaged  in  warfare. 
To  preserve  such  an  admirable  condition  strict  control  must  be  ex- 
ercised over  certain  unruly  persons  who  can  usually  be  distinguished 
by  their  sinister  expression  and  malicious  tendency. 

The  once  warlike  nation  of  the  United  States  is  now  resting 
peacefully.  Peace  is  doing  its  part  in  the  removing  of  grievances, 
when  not  long  ago  our  fair  land  was  in  a  turmoil  of  battles  in  which 
thousands  of  men  were  killed.  If  the  people  from  all  over  the 
United  States,  Europe,  and  other  foreign  nations  should  come  to- 
gether at  a  certain  place  and  declare  there  should  be  no  more  war 
or  trouble  between  them,  then  would  begin  the  reign  of  Universal 
Peace,  and  it  would  save  the  different  nations  many  lives,  and  many 
large  debts  to  pay,  which  could  be  used  for  the  uses  of  their  country. 

A  BUSY   STREET  SCENE 

I  am  standing  at  the  corner  of  the  Board  of  Trade  building. 
The  elevated  street  cars  are  running  at  a  rapid  speed.  They  make 
a  clanging,  rumbling  noise  that  deafens  my  ears.  Then  there  are 
the  other  street  cars  that  come  whizzing  by  every  minute.    The 


SINCERITY  3 

policeman  on  the  corner  is  blowing  his  whistle  for  the  wagons, 
automobiles,  and  people  to  stop  or  cross.  He  looks  as  if  he  would 
be  run  over,  but  everything  passes  without  touching  him.  Now  a 
wagon  is  completely  on  the  track,  and  a  car  four  yards  behind  it. 
The  motorman  slows  down  and  waits  for  the  driver  to  get  off  the 
track.  He  removes  himself  at  his  ease,  and  docs  n't  seem  the  least 
bit  excited.  It  makes  me  feel  as  if  I  am  hardly  anything  on  these 
crowded  streets. 

In  the  building  I  can  hear  the  grain  dealers  screaming  and  shout- 
ing at  the  top  of  their  voices.  It  sounds  as  if  there  are  wild  animals 
or  a  stampede  of  some  sort  inside.  There  are  so  many  newsboys 
that  I  get  tired  of  hearing  "  Papers,  Chicago  Tribune^  Herald,''  or 
"  Latest  reports  of  the  markets.  A  rise  in  hogs."  I  see  one  little 
boy  with  his  coat  worn  through  at  the  elbows,  his  stockings  all 
torn,  and  his  feet  peeping  through  his  shoes,  who  seems  to  be 
shunned  by  everyone,  but  still  he  hurries  along  with  the  crowd. 

A  coachman  is  driving  by  now.  He  wears  a  silk  hat,  a  black 
sleek  suit,  and  high  boots.  It  seems  as  if  the  best  of  care  is  taken 
of  the  horse  and  coach,  for  they  are  black  and  glossy.  The  lady  in 
the  carriage  is  dressed  in  a  beautiful  gown,  and  I  imagine  her, 
pretty  wealthy,  going  to  some  reception  or  party. 

I  cannot  see  all  of  the  sights  ^t  once,  nor  imagine  where  all  of 
this  throng  of  people  are  going. 


EXERCISE  2  —  Oral 

CHOOSING  A   SUBJECT 

If  you  had  to  talk  or  write  on  five  of  the  following  subjects, 
which  should  you  choose  ?  On  how  many  of  them  should 
you  have  something  to  say  t  About  which  do  you  know  too 
little  to  speak  or  write  sensibly  } 

1.  Patience.  5.  An  Upset. 

2.  A  Landslide.  6.  Canoeing  in  England. 

3.  My  Trip  to  the  City.  7.  Ascending  Pikes  Peak. 

4.  The  Canals  on  Mars.  8.  The  Supernatural  in  "  Macbeth." 


4  FIRST  IK)()K  OF  COMPOSFFION 

9.  Loading  an  Ocean  Steamer.  17.  Keeping  House. 

10.  Making  Maple  Syrup.  18.  A  Fire. 

11.  Why  I  Like  "Treasure  Island."         19.  A  Parade. 

12.  Justice  and  Mercy.  20.  A  Shopping  Trip. 

13.  A  Day  in  the  Field.  21.  Swimming. 

14.  Caught  in  a  Shower.  22.  My  Favorite  Tree. 

15.  My  First  Party.  23.  Behind  the  Bars. 

16.  A  Visit.  24.  Liberty  and  Equality. 

EXERCISE  3  —  Oral  or  Written 
SPEAKING   AND   WKITIXG   ON   A    IvVMILLVK   SUBJECT 

Speak  or  write  on  one  or  more  of  the  preceding  subjects, 
as  your  teacher  may  direct.  Tell  the  things  that  make  your 
experience  different  from  that  of  any  one  else.  Write  as  if 
you  were  talking-.  Put  your  work  into  good  form,  according 
to  your  teacher's  directions. 

EXERCISE  4  —  Oral 
SUBJECTS   OF  CONVERSATION 

Read  the  following  paragraphs  suggested  by  a  passage  in 
a  well-known  story  and  then  notice  before  your  next  lesson 
what  people  talk  about,  what  you  yourself  talk  about,  luring 
to  class  several  topics  that  are  interesting  to  you,  no  matter 
how  "common  "  they  may  be. 

Nancy  was  struggling  with  llie  difficuUics  of  composition  writing. 
Miss  Lawrence  gave  her  all  the  time-honored  subjects  of  her  own 
youthful  essays —  Peace  on  Earth,  The  Horrors  of  War,  Napoleon, 
Justice,  True  Riches,  Anger;  but  somehow  with  one  of  these  titles 
before  her,  all  Nancy's  efforts  could  produce  only  a  few  musty  sen- 
tences. After  she  had  inscribed  "  Anger  "  in  neat  handwriting  at 
the  top  of  a  page,  all  her  vivacious  little  personality  seemed  to 
congeal  somewhere  above  her  finger-tips. 


SINCERITY  5 

"  Write  as  you  talk,"  Miss  Lawrence  feebly  quoted. 

"  But,  dear  me,  Miss  Lawrence,  I  could  n't  talk  about  Peace  on 
Earth  and  Napoleon  — ■  not  more  than  a  sentence,  anyway ;  because 
I  never  do^  you  know ;  not  even  about  anger,  though  goodness 
knows  I  ought  to  kiioiu  something  about  that." 

"  I  suppose  you  don't  need  practice  in  things  you  do  talk  about," 
hesitated  Miss  Lawrence.  "  And,  anyway,"  she  added  more  confi- 
dently, "those  things  are  too  common  for  compositions." 


EXERCISE  5  —  Oral 

TWO    KINDS   OF   INSINCERITY 

Compare  the  following  piece  of  a  composition  written  by  a 
real  "Nancy"  with  the  newspaper  account  of  an  evening 
entertainment.  Why  could  not  Nancy  be  sincere  in  writing 
about  "  Human  Barriers  "  t  Why  is  the  newspaper  article 
so  glaringly  insincere .-'  That  is,  which  shows  insincerity  of 
ignorance,  and  which  insincerity  of  purpose }  Point  out 
specific  defects  in  sincerity. 

Human  Barriers 

Nearly  every  existing  life  is  blighted  more  or  less  by  some  kind 
of  opposition.  In  some  lives  promoting  development,  while  in 
others  it  is  degrading. 

Barriers  develop  from  every  source.  If  they  arc  not  overcome 
but  left  to  take  their  course  they  will  in  turn  become  masters  of 
their  subjects.  They  make  themselves  shown  in  all  lines  of  occu- 
pation and  in  all  shades  of  life ;  yet  even  this  is  needed  for  some 
to  make  a  partial  success.  No  one  can  escape  the  trials  and  tempta- 
tions of  life  but  should  accept  them  with  a  determination  for  the 
right.  The  birds  of  the  air  become  the  prey  of  larger  birds  or  the 
victim  of  the  hunter's  careful  aim ;  just  so  we  have  our  obstacles 
to  overcome. 


6  FIRST  l](^OK  OF  COMl>()Srri()N 

Nkwsv  Notks  i-ro.m  Widk-Awaki-:  Wilsox 

WiLSox,  March  30(Spccialj.  —  The  at  home  given  last  evening  in 
the  superb  and  palatial  home  of  our  eminent  and  highly  distinguished 
townsman,  the  Hon.  Fred  A.  Woodcock,  in  honor  of  the  cultured  and 
eloquent  Mrs.  Gross,  wife  of  that  able  jurist  Judge  Gross,  and  her 
brilliant  and  beautiful  daughter,  the  fascinating  Miss  Lois  Gross,  was 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  magnificent  entertainments  ever  given 
in  Wilson.  As  is  well  known,  this  charming  and  beautiful  home  is  the 
genuine  shrine  of  the  most  exquisite  and  princcliest  hospitality,  but 
on  this  resplendent  occasion  the  glittering  acme  of  the  finest  social 
function  was  reached,  for  refined  tact  and  exquisite  taste  and  excel- 
lent judgment  and  ample  means  contributed  their  richest  and  rarest 
gifts  to  make  that  lovely  scene  a  rhythmic  poem  of  beauty  and 
enchantment.  There  were  gleams  of  humor  as  cheering  as  the 
dripping  of  moonbeams  upon  the  quiet  bosom  of  a  sleeping  lake, 
not  rippling  but  ensilvering  the  dreaming  water ;  there  were  flashes 
of  sparkling  wit  as  brilliant  as  the  dazzling  lightnings  when  writing 
in  glittering  pencilings  upon  the  darkest  clouds  the  grandeur  and 
omnipotence  of  Jehovah  ;  there  were  peals  of  laughter  as  musical 
as  the  wordless  songs  of  rippling  brooks  journeying  to  their  home 
in  the  sea ;  there  were  faces  as  sweet  and  luscious  and  as  tempting 
as  strawberries  floating  in  stainless  saucers  of  richest  cream ;  there 
were  eyes  as  radiant  and  as  sparkling  as  those  glittering  gems  that 
adorn  the  bosom  of  the  sky,  and  rob  the  night  of  its  gloom  by 
brightening  the  shadows  with  the  silveriest  tintings  of  richest  lustre. 
Yea,  these  are  a  few  of  the  many  seductive  witcheries  which  wreathed . 
with  garlands  of  rapture  the  countenances  of  the  guests. 

The  two  specimens  given  in  Exercise  5  illustrate  another 
important  aspect  of  insincerity,  besides  showing  that  it  may 
proceed  either  from  ignorance  of  the  subject  or  from  intent 
to  flatter  or  deceive.  This  other  important  aspect  is  the  part 
that  ivords  play  in  the  effect  of  sincerity.  F:ven  if  the  reporter 
had  meant  all  his  praise  honestly,  we  should  find  it  hard  to 
accept  it  as  sincere  when  it  is  written  in  such  a  style.  The 
high-school  student  who  wrote  on  "Human  Barriers"  was 
struggling  not  only  with  a  subject  about  which  she  knew  little. 


SINCERITY  7 

but  also  with  the  false  notion  that  she  must  use  words  rather 
impressive  and  only  half  understood.  If  she  had  stopped  to 
think  she  would  have  known  that  bligJiting  can  never  pro- 
mote the  development  of  anything ;  that  barriers  do  not 
develop ;  that  sourec,  overcome,  take  their  course,  become 
masters,  all  suggest  different  and  incongruous  pictures.  She  , 
should  have  asked  what  a  sJiade  of  life  is  ;  and  how  the 
devouring  of  one  bird  by  another,  or  the  hunter's  careful 
aim,  could  be  called  an  obstacle.  If  we  are  to  make  any  true 
impression  on  our  readers,  what  we  write  must  not  only  be 
our  own  but  seem  so  ;  and  therefore  we  must  make  not  only 
our  subject  but  also  our  words  our  own. 

Following  are  two  examples  of  sincere  and  great  writing. 
Each  writer  means  what  he  says,  and  says  it,  never  stopping  to 
think  whether  the  word  he  uses  is  large  or  small,  if  it  fits  his 
thought.  If  he  wanted  to  speak  of  supper,  he  would  not  call 
it  evening  meal ;  nor  would  he  pick  up  worn-out  phrases 
like  the  common  walks  of  life  or  festive  throng  any  more 
than  he  would  wear  clothes  from  a  secondhand  shop.  His 
words,  like  his  thoughts,  are  his  own. 

The  first  example  is  the  closing  paragraph  of  Webster's 
reply  to  Hayne,  a  powerful  speech  delivered  before  the  United 
States  Senate  at  a  time  of  high  excitement  when  many  people 
thought  the  Union  was  in  danger.  Webster  loved  the  Union 
and  the  flag  which  stands  for  the  Union  —  that  gorgeous 
ensign  of  the  republic.  Twenty-two  years  later  as  he  lay 
dying,  he  watched  the  flag  floating  on  the  flagstaff  outside 
his  window.  It  was  still  undishonored,  for  he  died  before 
the  Civil  War  drenched  the  land  in  fraternal  blood.  These 
are  his  words  : 

When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time  the 
sun  in  heaven,  may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and  dis- 
honored fra2;ments  of  a  once  glorious  Union  :  on  States  dissevered, 


8  FIRST  r.OOK  OF  COMPOSFFIOX 

discordant,  belligerent ;  on  a  land  rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched, 
it  may  be,  in  fraternal  blood  !  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering 
glance  rather  behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  republic,  now 
known  and  honored  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  advanced, 
its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  in  their  original  lustre,  not  a  stripe 
erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star  obscured,  bearing  for  its  motto 
no  such  miserable  interrogatory  as  "  What  is  all  this  worth  ? "  nor 
those  other  words  of  delusion  and  folly,  "  Liberty  first  and  Union 
afterwards  " ;  but  everywhere,  spread  all  over  in  characters  of  living 
light,  blazing  on  all  its  ample  folds,  as  they  float  over  the  sea  and 
over  the  land,  and  in  every  wind  under  the  whole  heavens,  that 
other  sentiment,  dear  to  every  true  American  heart,  —  "  Liberty 
and  L' nion,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable !  " 

Webster,  "  Reply  to  Hayne  " 

The  second  example  is  Thackeray's  account  of  the  death 
of  Colonel  Nevvcome,  Clivc's  knightly  father : 

She  went  into  the  room,  where  Clive  was.  at  the  bed's  foot.  The 
old  man  within  it  talked  on  rapidly  for  a  while;  then  again  he 
would  sigh  and  be  still.  Once  more  I  heard  him  say  hurriedly, 
"Take  care  of  him  when  I  'm  in  India"';  and  then,  with  a  heart- 
rending voice,  he  called  out,  "  Leonore,  Ldonore  !  "  She  was  kneel- 
ing by  his  side  now.  The  patient's  voice  sank  into  faint  murmurs ; 
only  a  moan  now  and  then  announced  that  he  was  not  asleep. 

At  the  usual  evening  hour  the  chapel  bell  began  to  toll,  and 
Thomas  Newcome's  hands  outside  the  bed  feebly  beat  time.  And 
just  as  the  last  bell  struck,  a  peculiar  sweet  smile  shone  over  his 
face,  and  he  lifted  up  his  head  a  litde  and  quickly  said  "  Adsum !  " 
and  fell  back.  It  was  the  word  we  used  at  school  when  names  are 
called :  and  lo,  he,  whose  heart  was  as  that  of  a  litde  child,  had 
answered  to  his  name,  and  stood  in  the  presence  of  the  Master. 

Thackeray,  "  The  Newcomes  " 


SINCERITY  9 

EXERCISE  6  -  Oral 

SINCERE   WORDS    FOR    SINCERE  THOUGHTS 

W' hat  words  of  Webster's  do  you  never  use  ?  Which 
have  you  never  heard  spoken  ?  Which  have  you  never  seen 
before  ?  Answer  the  same  questions  as  to  the  paragraphs 
from  Thackeray.  Show  by  hsts  how  Webster,  rising  to  the 
importance  of  the  occasion  and  of  his  message,  uses  large 
and  somewhat  unusual  words  ;  yet  Thackeray,  writing  of  the 
most  solemn  and  truly  awful  of  subjects,  uses  the  simplest 
and  most  familiar  words. 

EXERCISE  7  — Oral 
USING  NEW  WORDS   SINCERELY 

From  the  two  selections  just  studied,  choose  five  words 
seldom  or  never  used  by  you,  yet  well  understood.  Use  each 
in  a  sensible  sentence  to  show  its  meaning.  Find  five  words 
that  you  could  hardly  at  present  use  sincerely.  How  much 
can  you  learn  of  these  five  words  by  carefully  noting  the  sense 
that  they  have  in  context  ? 

This  chapter  has  been  concerned  chiefly  with  meaning 
what  we  say,  and  with  not  saying  what  we  do  not  mean  — 
that  is,  with  sincerity  of  thought  and  of  words.  Insincerity 
of  thought  comes  chiefly  from  ignorance  of  the  subject ; 
insincerity  of  words,  from  a  purpose  to  flatter  or  deceive,  or 
from  laziness.  All  the  rest  of  this  book  is  chiefly  concerned 
with  saying  what  we  do  mean  ;  for  the  ability  to  do  this  is 
not  merely  a  matter  of  wishing  to  tell  the  truth,  nor  can  it 
be  gained  in  a  minute  or  without  perseverance. 


CHAPTER    II 

GOOD  FORM 

Long  ago  you  learned  something  of  the  form  in  which 
oral  and  written  speech  should  be  presented.  LYom  one 
point  of  view  the  whole  expression  of  your  thought  in  words 
may  be  considered  as  form ;  from  another  point  of  view,  only 
the  more  mechanical  part  of  this  expression  is  included, 
namely  the  articulation  of  letters,  the  upward  and  downward 
inflections  in  speech,  the  correct  grammatical  relations  of 
words,  the  handwriting,  spelling,  punctuation,  placing  of 
material  on  the  page  —  all  the  outward  means  of  making 
your  thought  quickly  and  easily  understood.  Some  of  these 
points  especially  applying  to  written  work  will  be  considered 
in  this  chapter,  and  further  exercises  in  good  form  will  fol- 
low in  other  chapters.  Only  the  simplest  and  most  important 
rules  are  mentioned  ;  you  cannot  afford  to  neglect  one  of 
them. 

The  mechanical  part  of  expression  of  thought  is  decided 
by  custom,  the  custom  of  our  times  and  of  our  language. 
There  is  not  much  need  for  reasoning  about  it.  We  must 
simply  find  out  what  the  best  custom  is,  and  then  form 
habits  of  following  it  without  giving  it  much  thought  or 
attention.  But  to  form  these  habits  takes  constant  atten- 
tion in  the  beginning.  Vour  aim  should  be  to  do  correctly 
u'itliout  thinking  at  the  end  of  this  year  many  of  these  me- 
chanical things  which  now  use  up  some  of  your  thought  and 
energ)'.    Take  pains  now,  to  save  pains  later. 


GOOD  FORM  II 

In  this  chapter  the  very  simplest  rules  of  form  for  written 
work  are  gathered,  rules  that  you  have  learned,  or  should 
have  learned,  before.  The  mere  memorizing  of  these  rules 
and  the  application  of  them  in  a  few  exercises  will,  however, 
prove  useless  in  fixing  habits.  You  must  apply  the  rules  in 
every  bit  of  writing  that  you  have  an  opportunity  to  do. 

EXERCISE  8  —  Oral 

Compare  the  two  versions  of  the  composition  on  page  12. 
What  matters  of  form  have  been  corrected  in  the  second  } 
Notice  general  appearance,  handwriting,  placing,  spelling, 
punctuation,  paragraphing.    Which  is  easier  to  understand  "i 

A.    PREPARATION  OF  PAPERS 
I.  Form  in  General 

1,  Place  the  title,  correctly  capitalized,  on  the  first  line 
near  the  middle. 

2.  Leave  a  margin  of  at  least  an  inch  at  the  left-hand  side 
of  the  page. 

3.-  Leave  no  meaningless  spaces  at  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  page, 

4.  Indent  the  first  line  of  every  paragraph,  or  group  of 
sentences  on  one  topic,  at  least  half  an  inch  beyond  the 
margin  of  writing. 

5.  Never  indicate  a  new  paragraph  unless  there  is  a  real 
division  of  the  thought. 

6.  Write  legibly  and  neatly ;  use  ink,  unless  otherwise 
directed. 


12  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFFION 

PLATE  I.  A  THEME  ORIGINAL  IN   MATTER,  MISERABLE  IN  FORM 

vuiA.  J^ax^cx^oIja^  (u^-enA    .d^JXL   (y-£^Lc^  (;>L,r\^^yu^. 
-^U.  tirtcX  tUi^v^i^  ^c,,*,,'  ^  /s^-Ct^M.    TEt^^?-t^^    ^^*-ttf/ 

PLATE   II.  THE  SAME  THEME,  WITH  THE   FORM   IMPROVED 

^|a^x>UXcL  A/vu   X^-x.  /v-l'^.A_oLoUJl.    erg-  Aa/^  Ax-cvcL  ,  >£^^   JiU-o 
^^^(.rTu/i/ /Vi^    /^../iJL^     O^^r^^JUUrsru    cLo-to..  T  i^-L/  C^TcCL    A.^rA.Axi^   Sr^JL. 


GOOD  FORM  13 

II.  Endorsement 

1 .  Fold  the  paper  evenly  once  lengthwise  and  write  the  en- 
dorsement on  whichever  side  your  teacher  directs — always 
on  the  same  side. 

2.  Place  your  name  on  the  first  line,  the  title  on  the  second, 
and  the  date  of  handing-in  on  the  third. 

3.  Place  a  comma  after  the  name,  another  after  the  title, 
and  a  period  after  the  date. 

4.  Punctuate  the  date  correctly. 

B.    RULES  OF  PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALIZATION 

Rule  1.  Begin  the  first  word  in  cveiy  sentence  witJi  a 
capital  letter. 

Rule  2.  End  every  sentence  ivitJi  a  period,  unless  the  sen- 
tence is  a  question  or  an  exclamation. 

EXERCISE  9  —  Written 

The  two  rules  given  above  sound  very  simple,  but  they  are 
not  easy  to  follow.  Nearly  all  beginners  in  composition  fre- 
quently write  two  sentences  rather  closely  connected  in  thought 
as  if  they  were  one  sentence,  sometimes  placing  a  comma  be- 
tween them.  This  is  called  "'  the  comma  blunder  "  and  is  an 
unfailing  sign  of  carelessness  or  lack  of  training.  If  you 
habitually  make  this  mistake,  root  it  out  of  your  work.  Copy 
the  following  sentences  correctly,  placing  periods  and  capitals 
where  they  should  be.  Notice  that  when  punctuated  properly 
these  sentences  often  prove  to  be  very  short  and  disjointed. 

1.  He  had  only  one  leg,  the  other  was  cut  off  at  the  knee. 

2.  Squire  Trelawney  was  a  large  strong  and  tall  man,  being  over 
six  feet  tall,  he  was  dark,  with  a  broad  face,  roughened  and  reddened 
in  his  travels. 


14  FIRST  ROOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

3.  She  was  not  in  any  hurry,  she  just  played  along. 

4.  The  captain  is  standing  in  the  doorway,  he  looks  very  neat  and 
clean  beside  the  others. 

5.  First  the  map  is  what  puts  them  up  to  this,  if  it  had  not  been 
for  the  map  they  would  not  have  known  anything  about  the  treasure. 

6.  Silver,  when  they  landed  at  a  port  in  Spanish  America,  had  got 
some  of  the  money  and  gone,  he  was  never  seen  after  this. 

7.  The  trees  by  the  pond  were  mostly  maples  and  willows,  they 
were  all  bare  now,  standing  out  against  the  sky. 

8.  We  saw  the  long,  solemn  procession  winding  up  the  dusty  road, 
it  was  passing  the  cemetery. 

9.  The  train  started,  we  were  not  more  than  two  rods  from  the 
station,  but  we  missed  it. 

10.  Along  the  meadow  path  beside  the  brook  the  two  children  ram- 
bled happily,  they  chased  butterflies  and  pulled  the  heads  off  daisies, 
no  one  saw  them  slip  under  the  fence. 

11.  Whoever  came  to  the  door  was  kindly  received,  mother  was  the 
most  truly  hospitable  person  I  ever  knew. 

12.  The  cactus  bloomed  on  Christmas  Day,  it  was  a  delicate  pink 
thing,  as  frail-looking  as  a  bubble. 

13.  My  lamp  must  be  broken,  I  cannot  turn  the  wick  up  or  down. 

14.  We  followed  our  guide  through  a  low  stone  gateway,  the  court- 
yard inside  was  a  scene  of  confusion. 

15.  The  windmill  was  clacking  furiously,  a  strong  breeze  had  sprung 
up  from  the  south. 

16.  No  one  ever  caught  a  fairy,  that  is  no  proof  that  fairies  do  not 
exist,  however. 

17.  Tommy  reached  out  to  seize  the  cake,  his  little  thin  hand  trem- 
bled so  that  he  could  hardly  clasp  the  shiny,  white,  sweet  morsel. 

18.  Our  horse  used  to  be  a  famous  racer,  she  will  give  us  a  sample 
of  her  former  powers  now  and  then. 

19.  I  like  hickory  nuts  better  than  any  other  kind,  they  are  good  for 
cake  or  candy  or  in  any  way  you  choose  to  eat  them. 

20.  A  sea  serpent  is  usually  supposed  to  be  as  impossible  as  a  mer- 
maid, there  is  some  truth  in  the  tales  about  them. 

21.  The  workmen  in  the  fields  were  "  turning  out  "  for  the  night, 
they  all  had  a  word  of  chaff  with  McTurg. 


GOOD  FORM  15 

EXERCISE  10  —  Written  and  Oral 

Look  over  all  the  themes  you  have  written  and  collect  any 
examples  of  the  comma  blunder  that  you  find.  Bring  them 
to  class  for  your  classmates  to  correct.  The  best  way  to  find 
these  blunders  is  to  read  your  work  aloud. 

Rule  3.  Use  a  question  mark  to  close  a  question,  an  excla- 
mation mark  to  close  an  exclamatory  expression. 

EXERCISE  11  —  Written 

These  first  three  rules  cover  the  punctuation  and  capital- 
ization of  the  sentence  as  a  whole.  Punctuate  correctly  the 
sentences  in  the  following  paragraph  : 

What  a  cozy  little  room  this  is  the  moment  I  opened  the  door  I  fell 
in  love  with  the  place  do  you  see  the  great  open  fireplace  at  the  end  of 
the  room  it  will  hold  a  four-foot  log  on  the  stone  above  it  you  see  the 
motto  of  good  cheer  on  each  side  is  a  many-paned  window  through 
which  comes  a  glimpse  of  the  garden  the  windows  are  framed  in  bril- 
liant red  leaves  of  woodbine  is  there  anything  so  homelike  as  books  and 
a  fire  here  are  all  kinds  of  books  ranged  in  cases  on  each  side  of  the 
room  what  treasures  for  a  rainy  day  who  knows  what  delightful  com- 
rades are  shut  between  those  covers  where  shall  I  begin  here  is  the 
easiest  of  easy-chairs  I  will  pull  it  before  the  fire  and  snuggle  down  in 
luxury  with  the  "  Arabian  Nights  "  from  the  top  shelf  in  the  corner  my 
letter  to  you  must  wait. 

Rule  4.  Begin  ivith  a  capital  letter  every  proper  name  of 
a  person  or  a  place,  every  word  dciived  from  one  of  these, 
and  initials  or  abbreviations  of  them. 

Examples:  John,  England,  India,  Indian,  English,  American, 
French,  R.  M.  Kelly,  D.D.  Exceptions:  Names  of  places  are  not 
capitalized  when  joined  to  the  name  of  some  article  of  commerce  so 
commonly  associated  with  the  place  that  the  two  names  are  taken  as 
one ;  as  chinaware  (or  china),  india  ink,  persian  ribbon, 


l6  FIRST  r,(^()K  OF  COMPOSITION 

Rule  5.  J)Cgin  ivitli  a  capital  letter  the  fiist  and  every  im^ 
portant  ivord  in  a  title.  For  examples,  see  the  lists  of  theitie 
titles  ill  I'arious  chapters  of  this  book. 

Rule  6.  Begiii  xuitli  a  capital  letter  the  plrst  word  in  every 
line  of  poetry. 

Note.  When  quoting  poetry  always  drop  the  verse  to  a  new 
line  on  the  page ;  never  run  it  in  as  if  it  were  prose. 

Example  :  As  Browning  says  in  "  Hervc  Rid," 
"  Praise  is  deeper  than  the  lips." 

Rule  7.  Begin  ivith  a  capital  letter  a  title  of  honor  used 
with  a  proper  name  or  instead  of  the  name. 

Examples:  Colonel  Roosevelt;  the  President;  Woodrow  Wilson, 
President  of  the  United  States. 

Rule  8.  Begin  witli  a  capital  letter  all  special  names 
applied  to  deity. 

Example  :  "  Ye  are  the  children  of  the  Circat  King." 

Rule  9.  Begin  with  a  capital  letter  Jiames  of  months, 
holidays,  and  days  of  the  week. 

ExamI'Le:  This  year  Christmas  came  on  Saturday  and  January 
will  begin  on  Saturday,  too. 

Rule  10.  Bigin  zvith  a  capital  letter  names  of  things 
personified. 

Example:  The  Little  Red  Hen  said,  "  I  will,  then." 

Rule  11.  Begin  with  a  capital  letter  the  first  word  of  a 
direct  quotation. 

Ex.ample:  Arthur  cried  out  to  Bedivere,  "  What  sawest  thou.'  " 
Rule  12.    Capitalize  the  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  0. 


GOOD  FORM  17 

Rule  13.   Xcvcr  use  capital  letters  uicaniiiglcssly. 

Example  :   My  Brother  saw  the  Elephant ;   but  as  I  had  the  Measles, 
I  could  not  go  out  to  see  the  Parade. 

EXERCISE  VI -Oral 

Give  the  rule  governing  the  use  of  each  capital  letter  in 
the  following  sentences  : 

1.  I  know  nothing  in  English  or  any  other  literature  more  admirable 
than  that  sentiment  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  "  Every  man  truly  lives,  so 
long  as  he  acts  his  nature,  or  some  way  makes  good  the  faculties  of 
himself." 

2.  The  old  gentleman  opposite  all  at  once  asked  me  if  I  ever  read 
anything  better  than  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man."  He  was  fond  of  poetry 
when  he  was  a  boy,  —  his  mother  taught  him  to  say  many  little  pieces, 
—  he  remembered  one  beautiful  hymn  ;  and  the  old  gentleman  began, 
in  a  clear,  loud  voice  for  his  years, 

"  The  spacious  firmament  on  high. 
With  all  the  blue  ethereal  sky. 
And  spangled  heavens." 

He  stopped,  as  if  starded  by  our  silence,  and  a  faint  flush  ran  up  be- 
neath the  thin  white  hairs  that  fell  upon  his  cheek.  As  I  looked  round, 
I  was  reminded  of  a  show  I  once  saw  at  the  Museum,  —  the  Sleeping 
Beauty,  I  think  they  called  it.  .  .  .  Our  Celtic  Bridget,  or  Biddy,  is  not  a 
foolish  fat  scullion  to  burst  out  crying  for  sentiment.  .  .  .  She  could  n't 
set  the  plate  down  while  the  old  gentleman  was  speaking. 

3.  Beware  of  rash  criticisms  ;  the  rough  and  astringent  fruit  you 
condemn  may  be  an  autumn  or  a  winter  pear,  and  that  which  you  picked 
up  beneath  the  same  bough  in  August  may  have  been  only  its  worm- 
eaten  windfalls. 

4.  Do  I  think  that  the  particular  form  of  lying  often  seen  in  news- 
papers, under  the  title,  "  From  our  Foreign  Correspondent,"  does  any 
harm  ?  —  Why,  no ;  I  don't  think  it  does.  I  suppose  it  does  n't 
really  deceive  people  any  more  than  the  "  Arabian  Nights  "  or  "  Gulliver's 
Travels  "  do. 


i8  riRsr  I'.ooiv  OF  composition 

5.  The  Puritan  Sablxith,  as  everybody  knows,  began  at  sundown 
on  Saturday  evening. 

6.  Our  brains  are  seventy-year  clocks.  The  Angel  of  Life  winds 
them  up  once  for  all,  then  closes  the  case,  and  gives  the  key  into  the 
hand  of  the  Angel  of  the  Resurrection. 

7.  The  True  Knight  of  Learning,  —  the  world  holds  him  dear, — 
Love  bless  him,  Joy  crown  him,  God  speed  his  career ! 

8.  I  think  myself  fortunate  in  having  the  Poet  and  the  Professor 
for  my  intimates. 

9.  The  second  of  the  ravishing  voices  I  have  heard  was,  as  I  have 
said,  that  of  another  (German  woman.  I  suppose  1  shall  ruin  myself 
by  saying  that  such  a  voice  could  not  come  from  any  Americanized 
human  being. 

10.  What  can  be  more  trivial  than  that  old  story  of  opening  the  folio 
Shakespeare  that  used  to  lie  in  some  ancient  English  hall  and  finding 
the  flakes  of  Christmas  pastry  between  its  leaves,  shut  up  in  them  per- 
haps a  hundred  years  ago  ?  And,  lo !  as  one  looks  on  these  poor  relics 
of  a  bygone  generation,  the  universe  changes  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye ; 
old  George  the  Second  is  back  again,  and  the  elder  Pitt  is  coming  into 
power,  and  General  Wolfe  is  a  fine  promising  young  man,  and  over  the 
Channel  they  arc  pulling  the  Sieur  Damiens  to  pieces  with  wild  horses, 
and  across  the  Atlantic  the  Indians  are  tomahawking  Hirams  and  Jona- 
thans and  Jonases  at  Fort  William  Henry. 

HoLMKS,  "  The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table  ^' 

EXERCISE  13  -  Written 

Supply  capital  letters,  periods,  question  marks,  and  excla- 
mation marks  : 

1.  but  what  are  these  grave  thoughts  to  thee 
out,  out  into  the  open  air 

thy  only  dream  is  liberty, 
thou  carest  little  how  or  where 

2.  o  holy  night  from  thee  i  learn  to  bear 
what  man  has  borne  before 

thou  layest  thy  finger  on  the  lips  of  care 
gnd  they  complain  no  more 


GOOD  FORM  19 

3.  when  descends  on  the  adantic  the  gigantic 
storm-wind  of  the  equinox, 

landward  in  his  wrath  he  scourges  the  toiling  surges, 

laden  with  seaweed  from  the  rocks : 

from  bermuda's  reefs ;  from  edges  of  sunken  ledges 

in  some  far-off,  bright  azore  ; 

from  bahama,  and  the  dashing  silver-flashing 

surges  of  san  salvadore 

4.  Monk,    is  this  the  road  to  Segovia 
Shepherd,    it  is,  your  reverence 

Monk,    what  is  that  yonder  in  the  valley 

Shepherd,    san  ildefonso 

Monk,    a  long  way  to  breakfast 

Shepherd,    ay,  marry 

Monk,    are  there  any  robbers  in  these  mountains 

Shepherd,    yes,  and  worse  than  that 

Monk,    what 

Shepherd,    wolves 

Monk,    santa  maria 

Rule  14.  Enclose  in  quotation  marks  cvay  direct  qnotation. 

Note  i  .  Be  sure  to  place  quotation  marks  at  the  cud  as  well  as 
at  the  beginning  of  a  quotation. 

Note  2.  If  unquoted  explanatory  words  interrupt  the  quota- 
tion, be  sure  to  enclose  the  quotation  on  each  side  of  them  with 
quotation  marks. 

Examples  :  "  There  are  others  in  the  party,"  said  he.  "  Can't  you 
get  their  consent?  "    "  I  am  afraid,"  he  replied,  "  that  I  cannot." 

Rule  15.  When  the  explanatory  100 rds  follow  the  quotation, 
close  the  quotation  ivitli  a  comma  unless  it  is  a  question  or 
an  exclamation,  —  that  is,  udien  the  -words  quoted  would 
end  witJi  a  period  if  unquoted ;  if  they  would  end  tvith  an 
exclamation  mark  or  an  interrogation  point,  do  not  change 
these  marks  in  quoting. 


20  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFFION 

Examples  :  "  I  am  here,"  replied  a  voice. 
"  Who  are  you  ?  ''  I  asked. 
"  Hush  !  "  was  the  only  answer. 

Rule  16.  JV/icu  the  cxplanatojy  ivoi'ds  precede  the  quota- 
tion, set  them  off  from  it  by  a  comma.  Sometimes  a  long 
quotation  is  introduced  by  a  colon. 

ExAiMi'LEs  :   I  summoned  up  courage  to  shout,  "  Do  you  need  help?" 

At  the  punch-bowl's  brink, 
Let  the  thirsty  think 
What  they  say  in  Japan  : 

"  First  the  man  takes  a  drink. 
Then  the  drink  takes  a  drink, 
Then  the  drink  takes  the  man." 

Edward  Rowi.axd  Sill 

Rule  17.  JJVieu  the  explanatoiy  ivords  interrupt  the  quota- 
tion, set  tJicm  off  from  it  on  both  sides  by  commas,  if  they 
break  into  a  soitoicc. 

Example:  "Is  there  a  single  boy,"  queried  the  master,  solemnly, 
"  who  will  dare  to  tell  the  truth .?  " 

Note.  If  the  explanatory  words  come  at  the  cud  of  a  quoted 
sentence,  Rule  1 5  applies,  whether  another  quoted  sentence  follows 
or  not.  These  words  are,  of  course,  then  followed  by  a  period, 
and  the  next  quoted  sentence,  like  every  other  sentence,  begins 
with  a  capital  letter.  If  the  unquoted  words  break  into  the  midst 
of  a  sentence,  the  second  part  does  not,  of  course,  begin  with  a 
cajjital  letter. 

Examples  :  "  I  'm  Ja.son,"  he  replied  defiantly,  "  and  this  is  the 
Argo." 

"I  can't  help  it."  he  replied.  "It's  the  best  sort  of  Argo  I  can 
manage,  and  it's  all  right  if  you  only  pretend  enough." 


GOOD  FORM  21 

PUNCTUATION    OF   QUOTATIONS 

Sentences  containing  quoted  words  in  direct  discourse  are 
of  three  types  according  as  the  explanatory  words  "  He  said," 
or  their  equivalent,  precede,  follow,  or  interrupt  the  quoted 
words.  The  first  three  groups  represent  these  types ;  the 
fourth  group  is  equivalent  to  group  II  with  other  sentences 
added.  This  last  addition  might,  of  course,  be  a  whole  para- 
graph, and  end  punctuation  might  vary. 


1.  He  said,  "  C_ 


2.  He  said,  "  C ?  " 

3.  He  said,  "  C !  " 

II 

4.  "  C ,"  he  said. 

5.  "  C ?  "  he  said. 

6.  "  C !  "  he  said. 


Ill 

7.  "  C ,"  he  said,  "  l.c.^ 

8.  "  C ,"  he  said,  "  l.c._ 


9.  "C ,"  he  said,  "I.e.. 


IV 

10.  "  C ,"  he  said.    "  C_ 

11.  "C ?"  he  said.    "  C^ 

12.  "  C !  "  he  said.    "  C_ 

Note.    C  =  capital ;  I.e.  =  small  letter. 


22  FIRSI'   liOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  14  -  Written 
Punctuate  and  capitalize  correctly  the  following  quotations  : 

fire  fire  i  screamed  frantically 

where  cried  hal,  leaping  up  the  stairs 

i  ran  before  him  into  the  nursery,  seizing  a  rug  as  i  ran,  and 
half  sobbed  oh  be  quick 

eleanor  and  robert  were  standing  just  where  i  had  left  them, 
watching  the  leaping  flames  run  along  the  curtains,  mother  shouted 
rob  in  an  almost  delighted  tone  i  fink  we  've  got  a  fire 

eleanor,  run  to  the  telephone  i  said  as  calmly  as  possible  and  ask 
central  to  call  the  fire  engine  take  bob  with  you 

no  cried  hal  hastily  it 's  all  over  don't  get  any  engine  to  deluge 
us  stop,  eleanor 

i  discovered  a  heap  of  blackened  curtains  smoking  under  a  rug 
and  hal  examining  a  singed  hand 

Rule  18.  Use  tJic  apostrophe  to  indicate  the  possessive 
form  of  every  name. 

Examples  :  John's,  Bess's,  cat's,  men's,  girl's,  Burns's.  Burns''  is 
also  correct,  though  Burns's  is  to  be  preferred.  Carefully  avoid  placing 
the  apostrophe  before  the  s  which  ends  such  words  as  Dickens,  Holmes, 
and  Keats. 

NoTK  I.  Use  the  apostrophe  and  j-  after  all  names  except  plurals 
ending  in  s  (as  girls) ;  after  these  use  the  apostrophe  only. 

Note  2.  Never  use  the  apostrophe  to  show  possession  with  its, 
hers,  yours,  ours,  theirs,  his,  whose.    It 's  means  //  is. 

EXERCISE  15  —  Written 

Use  in  sentences  possessive  forms  of  the  following  names, 
both  singular  and  plural,  if  a  plural  be  possible.  Use  also  the 
plural,  not  possessive. 


Washington 

fortune 

general 

Mary 

lord 

colonel 

lady 

mayor 

lieutenant 

GOOD  FORM 


23 


boy 

farmer 

servant 

girl 

doctor  • 

comrade 

Bess 

lawyer 

playmate 

bird 

citizen 

friend 

cat 

policeman 

Arthur 

dog 

aunt 

Boston 

horse 

uncle 

Chicago 

Jack 

cousin 

England 

man 

mother 

Mr.  Jones 

American 

father 

Shakespeare 

president 

sister 

Lincoln 

pope 

brother 

city 

husband 

government 

wife 

parliament 

captain 

Shays 

Rule  19.    Use  the  apostrophe  in  place  of  omitted  letters  in 
contractiojis. 

Examples:  I'm,  can't,  it's  (=  it  is),  we're,  doesn't,  don't,  isn't, 
have  n't,  let 's,  etc. 


EXERCISE  16  -  Written 

Supply  apostrophes  where  needed  in  the  following,  and 
give  the  rule  governing  the  use  of  each  : 


1.  Its  a  pity  its  wing  is  broken. 

2.  Lets  play  soldiers  and  111  be  captain. 
Hers  is  as  happy  a  face  as  youll  see  in  a  days  journey. 
The  girls  books  were  in  worse  condition  than  the  boys. 
"  Twas  the  night  before  Christmas." 
"  Howeer  it  be,  it  seems  to  me 
Tis  only  noble  to  be  good." 
"  And  he  who  follows  Loves  behest 
Far  excelleth  all  the  rest !  " 
Whose  book  is  this  with  its  cover  torn? 
Havent  we  had  a  happy  day  ? 
"  Ive  said  my  seven  times  over  and  over." 
"  O  bumblebee,  youre  a  dusty  fellow." 


8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 


24  FIRST  BOOK  OK  COMPOSITION 

12.  The  childrcns  voices  sounded  tired. 

13.  We  filled  the  horses  mangers  with  hay. 

14.  The  conductors  tone  was  impatient. 

15.  Babys  eyes  blinked  sleepily. 

16.  The  childrcns  slippers  havent  come  yet. 

17.  "  Leave  em  alone 
And  theyll  come  home, 
Wagging  their  tails  behind  them." 

18.  "  If  shes  not  gone,  she  lives  there  still." 

19.  Hows  your  mother?  Yourc  taking  her  some  oranges,  arent  you? 
So  I  suppose  shes  better. 

20.  Heres  wishing  you  a  Happy  New  Year! 

Rule  20.    Use  a  coninia  to  separate  the  words  yes  and  no 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Examples  :  Yes,  he  bought  them  an  hour  ago.  No,  he  would  n't 
wait. 

EXERCISE  VI -Oral 

What  rules  for  the  use  of  the  comma  have  been  given  in 
this  chapter  .?  State  them.  What  other  rules  have  you  learned 
before }  Illustrate  all  the  uses  of  the  comma  that  you  know, 
and  find  examples  in  this  chapter. 

EXERCISE  18  —  Written 

Supplv  capital  letters  and  marks  of  punctuation  omitted 
in  the  fcjllowing  : 

lets  pretend,  suggested  harold,  that  were  cavaliers  and  round- 
heads ;  and  you  be  a  roundhead 

well  then  he  began  afresh  lets  pretend  were  knights  of  the  round 
table;  and  (with  a  rush)  ill  be  lancclot 

what  is  it  inquired  Charlotte,  sitting  up  and  shaking  out  her 
curls 

i  stood  spell-bound  for  a  moment  longer,  and  then  with  a  cry  of 
"soldiers"  i  was  off  to  the  hedge,  charlotte  picking  herself  up 
and  scurrying  after 


GOOD  FORM 


25 


is  there  going  to  be  a  battle  panted  Harold,  hardly  able  to  keep 
up  for  excitement 

of  course  there  is  i  replied  were  just  in  time  come  on 

will  they  be  Indians  inquired  my  brother  (meaning  the  enemy)  or 
roundheads  or  what 

i  reflected,  harold  always  required  direct  straightforward  answers 
—  not  faltering  supposition  they  wont  be  Indians,  i  replied  at  last ; 
nor  yet  roundheads,  there  have  nt  been  any  roundheads  seen 
about  here  for  a  long  time  theyll  be  frenchmen 

Adapted  from  Kenneth  Grahame,  "  The  Golden  Age  " 

C.    CORRECT   USAGE 
EXERCISE  19  —  Written  or  Oral 

Use  in  a  sensible  sentence  each  correct  form  given  below. 
Be  careful  not  to  make  the  mistakes  indicated  in  the  second 
column.  These  expressions  are  all  frequently  used,  but  are 
childish  or  vulgar. 


10. 


11. 


Say 

is  n't,  are  n't 

have  n't,  has  n't 

must  have,  could  have,  would 

have,  etc. 
had 

have  to 

have  somebody  do  something 
teach  somebody  something 

^">"^"Hh!fs  done}^"^^'^^"^ 

fsaw 
any  one-^  , 

Lhas 

he  1 

she  I  does  n't 

it     J 

,    Jto 

\to  have 


^anythi 
seen  J 


Never  say 
ain't 

ain't  got,  hain't  got 
must  of,  could  of,  would  of,  etc. 

had  of,  had  have 

haf  to 

have  somebody  to  do  something 

learn  somebody  something 

fdone      1  ,  . 

any  one^^  ,        ,.  ,  ^anythmg 
[has  did  J 

r  seen       ~1 
any  one<^  ,  V  anything 

[_has  saw  J       -^        ° 

he  1 

she  !>  don't 

it  J- 

had  ought 


26 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


Say 

,     f  not  to 
12.  ought -^ 

i.not  to  have 


13. 


f  many,   a  few,   two 
there  are<^ 


t      or  more 

14.  you  were 

15.  '^^"''^Ihardly 
can     J 

16.  hardly 

had  '} 

17.  have  !>no,  none,  nothing 
has    J 


18 


no,  none 


IS,  are 
was,  were. 

19.  the  man 
the  woman 

20.  this,  that,  these,  those 

21.  himself,  themselves 

22.  those  boys,  those  books,  etc. 
-„    the  person  who  or  that^ 


the  thing  which  or  that  J 
me 
him 
her 
them 
J  to  go  out,  in,  etc. 


24.  between  you  and^ 


25.  want  , 

l^  to  get  up,  down,  etc. 

r  studied 

26.  as  far  as  ij  went 

(^  read 

27.  very  good,  pretty,  etc. 

28.  off 


Never  say 

had  n't  ought 

there  is  many,  a  few,  two  or  more 

you  was 

^°";^"'^)hardly 
can't       J  ■' 

^°"^,  j  hardly 
didntj  ■' 

hadn't  1 

have  n't  I  got  no,  none,  nothing 

has  n't    J 

is  n't,  are  n't 

was  n't,  were  n't . 

the  man,  he 

the  woman,  she,  etc. 

this  here,  that  there,  etc. 

hisself,  theirselves 

them  boys,  them  books,  etc. 

the  person  which 

(I 
he 
she 

they 


no,  none 


between  you  and« 


want  in,  out,  up,  down,  etc. 

all  the  farther  I  got 

real  good,  pretty,  etc. 
off  of,  off  from,  off  'n 


GOOD  FORM  27 

D.    BUSINESS    LETTERS 

The  form  of  composition  most  frequently  used  outside  of 
school  is  letter-writing.  Nearly  every  one  writes  friendly  let- 
ters or  letters  of  business,  letters  inquiring  prices,  ordering 
goods,  directing  workmen,  and  the  like.  Consequently  letter- 
writing  is  the  form'  of  composition  that  we  most  quickly 
recognize  as  of  practical  value. 

But  in  spite  of  all  this,  the  fact  remains  that  only  a  small 
proportion  of  people  write  a  good  business  letter.  Much  of 
the  criticism  that  business  men  pass  on  the  work  of  the 
schools  is  caused  by  the  poor  letters  that  come  to  them  day 
after  day.  A  great  deal  of  time  is  wasted  and  money  lost  be- 
cause customers  express  themselves  poorly  or  incompletely 
in  their  letters.  Why }  Is  it  that  they  do  not  think  what 
such  letters  demand } 

What  does  a  good  business  letter  demand  t  First,  a  form 
that  is  practically  unvar}dng,  a  form  from  which  the  reader 
can  in  a  moment  tell  where  the  writer  lives,  when  he  wrote, 
to  whom,  and,  finally,  who  he  is.  A  good  business  man  wants 
to  give  all  the  time  necessary  to  a  piece  of  work,  but  no  more. 
With  him  time  is  money.  Consequently  the  writer  who  follows 
the  commonest  form  of  letter-writing  will  get  himself  under- 
stood best  and  most  quickly.  Some  parts  of  that  form  may 
seem  unnecessary,  a  useless  relic  of  olden  times  ;  but  until 
custom  changes  these  parts,  we  can  save  time  for  ourselves 
and  our  correspondents  by  doing  as  others  do. 

No  one  has  a  good  excuse  for  making  any  error  in  the 
form  of  his  letter.  First,  one  must  memorize  the  form,  and 
then  he  must  use  it  again  and  again  until  he  has  gained  the 
habit  of  writing  it  correctly.  Following  are  model  forms, 
showing  also  the  way  letters  are  placed  on  different  sizes 
of  paper. 


28 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


I'LATK  III 


V^n.   '^f^'yi^'tt-&i4-€^'t 


€i-a^^ 


d^'i^t^  -yne.  -^^  ^^oA-ce^ 


-HJi^'ioA.    ■lijt^'^/^,  G/   -t^^^c-e^iji^,  -oo^^e^  ■^A.e-  ■o/^-ez-t^^&i. 


0)/        y    / 


GOOD  FORM  29 


^  0)/        y  / 


30  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

The  six  formal  parts  of  a  business  letter,  which  arc  num- 
bered in  the  models,  are:  (i)  the  heading,  (2)  the  address, 
(3)  the  salutation,  (4)  the  body  of  the  letter,  (5)  the  leave- 
taking,  or  complimentary  close,  (6)  the  signature. 

The  heading  (i)  should  be  placejd  one  or  two  inches  from 
the  top  of  the  page  and  so  spaced  as  to  leave  a  small  margin 
at  the  right.  The  heading  may  fall  into  one,  two,  three,  or 
even  four  lines,  depending  on  how  much  it  must  contain. 
Very  large  or  very  obscure  towns  demand  more  detail  than 
others.  Give  in  the  heading  all  the  information  that  the 
mail  service  needs  in  finding  your  home. 

The  heading  also  includes  the  date.  This  should  never  be 
omitted,  as  it  is  often  important  when  reference  is  made  to 
the  letter.  The  order  given  in  the  model  (January  5,  1900) 
is  that  generally  used,  and  though  a  strong  argument  may 
be  made  for  a  more  logical  order  (5  January,  1900),  custom 
both  in  America  and  in  England,  the  home  of  propriety 
in  letter-writing,  has  certainly  approved  the  former  order. 
Many  business  houses,  but  not  those  most  careful  of  their 
custom,  write  1/5/00.  This  should  be  avoided  for  two 
reasons  :  First,  it  shows  unseemly  haste ;  second,  it  ma}- 
easily  be  confused  with  the  order  used  by  Quakers  and  other 
sects,  5/1/00,  in  which  the  day  is  indicated  first,  then  the 
month,  and  finally  the  year.  In  matters  of  business  one 
cannot  be  too  exact. 

The  address  (2)  of  the  person  or  firm  to  whom  the  letter  is 
written  is  placed  one  or  two  spaces  below  the  date  and  begin- 
ning at  the  margin  on  the  left.  This  is,  of  course,  partly  a 
convention,  but  not  infrequently  letters  go  astray  and  may 
by  this  address  be  identified  ;  and  in  large  correspondence, 
where  letters  are  placed  in  envelopes  b\'  clerks,  this  address 
preceding  the  body  of  the  letter  is  an  absolute  necessity. 


GOOD  FORM  31 

The  salutation  (3)  is  largely  mere  form,  which  we  follow 
because  it  is  the  custom.  In  business  letters  one  should  use 
Sir  or  Sirs  or  Gentlemen  or  My  dear  Sir,  Madavi  or  My 
dear  Madam.  In  addressing  an  institution,  as,  for  example, 
The  American  Pathological  Institute,  it  is  permissible  to  use 
these  forms  of  salutation,  though  it  is  better  to  address  some 
officer,  as  the  president  or  the  secretary  or  the  manager.  All 
words  in  such  salutations  should  begin  with  capital  letters 
except  the  word  dear.  Regarding  that,  custom  varies  ;  most 
people  write  My  dear  Sir,  others  My  Dear  Sir.  After  the 
salutation  use  the  colon  or  the  colon  and  a  dash. 

The  body  (4)  of  the  letter  requires  thought.  If  a  writer 
desires  prompt  and  accurate  service,  he  has  no  right  to  be 
careless  or  rambling  or  unclear  in  his  letter.  He  must  first 
decide  what  he  wishes  to  say  ;  then  he  must  try  to  say  it  as 
briefly  and  as  clearly  as  possible.  He  must,  at  the  same  time, 
be  sure  to  include  all  necessary  information.  It  is  far  better, 
of  course,  to  tell  too  much  than  not  enough. 

If  the  writer  wishes  information,  he  should  make  his  ques- 
tions real  questions.  For  example,  he  should  write,  "What 
is  the  price  of  your  No.  273  skates,  listed  in  your  catalogue 
No.  32,  page  67  1  "  not,  "  I  am  not  certain  what  the  price  of 
these  skates  is."  In  either  case  he  may  get  an  answer ;  but 
if  he  really  wishes  to  know,  he  should  ask. 

In  like  manner,  if  there  are  several  questions  or  several 
items  in  the  order  or  several  topics  in  the  letter,  list  each  one 
in  a  separate  paragraph.  It  is  easy  to  do,  and  it  saves  unneces- 
sary labor,  which  somebody  —  the  customer,  of  course,  in  the 
end  —  must  pay  for. 

In  replying  to  a  letter  one  should  refer  to  each  question 
separately,  preferably  repeating  the  substance  of  it,  so  that 
the  recipient  of  the  letter  may  understand  exactly  what  the 


32  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFlIOxM 

writer  means.  Write,  "  The  skates  No.  273,  listed  in  our 
catalogue  No.  32,  page  67,  we  sell  for  two  dollars  a  pair." 
Then  there  is  no  possibility  of  confusion. 

As  a  rule,  avoid  contractions.  67/.,  inst.,  f7vx.  (meaning 
last  month,  this  month,  the  next  month)  are  commonly  used, 
however,  in  business  letters.  Some  people  have  a  habit  of 
writing  in  letters  sentences  without  a  subject,  —  for  instance, 
'"  Have  considered  your  questions,"  instead  of  "  I  have  con- 
sidered your  questions."  This  may  save  a  moment  of  time, 
but  it  seems  hurried  and  indifferent.  As  Emerson  has  said, 
life  is  not  so  short  but  there  is  always  time  enough  for  courtesy. 
Moreover,  there  is  sure  to  be  occasional  confusion  or  misun- 
derstanding on  account  of  this  slovenliness,  and  more  time 
will  be  spent  in  setting  matters  straight  than  can  be  saved 
through  years  of  such  omissions. 

The  leave-taking  (5)  is  to-day  only  formal,  a  relic  and 
reminder  of  da}-s  when  men  took  their  hats  gracefully  and 
departed  with  grandeur.  St)-les  have  changed  in  this  matter 
quite  as  much  as  in  clothes.  Once  it  was  proper  for  George 
Washington,  even  though  ex-president,  to  write  in  a  letter  to 
an  inferior,  "  I  am,  sir,  your  most  obedient  servant,  etc." 
To-day  such  a  leave-taking  would  seem  as  affected  and  out 
of  place  as  a  colonial  costume.  In  business  letters  we  write 
almost  without  exception,  "  Yours  truly,"  "'  Yours  very  truly," 
"  Yours  respectfully."  It  should  be  noted  that  only  the  first 
word  of  the  leave-taking  begins.with  a  capital  letter  and  that 
"  Yours,"  like  all  other  pronouns,  does  Jiot  form  its  possessive 
by  the  use  of  an  apostrophe.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  of  course, 
abbreviations  are  unnecessary.    "  Yrs  etc."  is  inexcusable. 

The  signature  (6)  ordinarily  concludes  the  business  letter. 
This  should  in  all  cases  be  legible,  neither  careless  nor  ornate. 
Some  people  form  a  bad  habit  of  signing  their  names  with  a 


GOOD  FORM  33 

flourish  that  is  intended  to  be  impressive,  but  is  often  illegi- 
ble and  absurd.  If  the  letter  is  signed  by  another  person 
than  the  writer,  he  should  add  under  the  signature  the  word 
by  or  the  Latin  word/^r,  which  means '"  by,"  and  his  own  name 
or  initials.  By  or  per,  when  so  used,  is  not  begun  with  a 
capital  letter. 

When  a  woman  signs  her  name  to  a  business  letter  it  is 
not  clear  to  a  stranger  whether  she  is  married  or  single,  and 
so  he  does  not  know  how  to  address  her  in  reply.  Conse- 
quently a  woman  should  prefix  to  her  signature  Miss  or 
J//T.  in  parentheses,  —  as, 

Yours  very  truly, 

(Mrs.)  Mary  Jones. 

Or  she  may  sign  her  name 

Yours  very  truly, 
Mary  Jones. 

and  then  write  below,  beginning  at  the  left-hand  margin  : 

Please  address 

Mrs.  George  T.  Jones. 

The  words  Please  address  may  be  omitted.  A  married  woman 
should  give  her  husband's  name  preceded  by  Mrs. ;  a  widow, 
usually  her  own  name,  as  Mrs.  Mary  Jones.  In  other  words, 
a  woman  should  indicate  how  she  wishes  letters  to  her 
addressed.  Conversely,  in  answering  a  letter,  address' the 
writer  by  the  name  signed. 

Sometimes,  for  convenience,  the  address  of  the  writer  is 
repeated  below  the  signature.  This  is  not  necessary,  how- 
ever, as  it  has  already  been  given  in  the  heading. 

If  a  letter  consists  of  more  than  one  sheet,  the  sheets 
should  be  carefully  arranged  in  order,  preferably  being  num- 
bered at  the  top.     If  letter  paper,  usually  8  by   lo  inches 


34  FIRST  lK)OK  OF  COMPOSITION 

in  size,  has  been  used,  it  should  be  folded  once  from  the 
bottom,  the  crease  being  not  quite  lialfway  up  the  paper,  then 
folded  from  the  right,  and  finally  from  the  left  to  fit  the 
envelope.  If  note  paper,  approximately  5  by  8  inches  in  size, 
has  been  used,  the  first  fold  should  be  up  from  the  bottom, 
the  second  down  from  the  top.  This  may  seem  a  trivial  matter, 
but  it  saves  the  time  and  the  patience  of  the  recipient. 


PLATES  V 


3  - 


When  enclosing  a  stamp,  never,  as  many  people  do,  attach 
it  to  the  paper  by  a  part  of  its  mucilage.  It  too  frequently 
tears  and  is  ruined  when  one  tries  to  detach  it.  With  a  sharp 
knife  cut  two  parallel  slits  in  the  paper,  and  through  these 
slip  the  stamp  ;  or,  better  still,  wrap  it  in  oiled  paper  and  en- 
close it  in  the  folded  letter.    Always  enclose  a  stamp  when 


GOOD  FORM  35 

requesting  a  reply  from  some  one  who  would  not  be  expected, 
through  friendship  or  business  interest,  to  reply  without  it. 

When  making  an  enclosure  of  any  kind,  mention  the  fact, 
either  in  the  body  of  the  letter  or  by  adding  "  Enclosure  " 
near  the  left-hand  margin  and  below  the  signature. 

The  envelope  should  be  addressed  so  that  the  post-office 
department  can  with  the  least  possible  effort  deliver  the 
letter.  To  this  end  the  stamp  must  be  affixed  in  the  proper 
place,  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  the  writing  must  be  legi- 
ble, and  the  necessary  items  of  the  superscription  arranged  in 
their  proper  order,  —  first  the  name,  then  the  street  and 
number  or  post-office  box,  then  the  county,  if  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  that,  and  finally  the  state.  If  the  letter  is  sent 
in  care  of  some  one,  that  fact  may  be  indicated  in  a  line  im- 
mediately following  the  name  or  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner. 
In  all  of  the  models  notice  the  position  and  spacing  of  the 
items.  The  arrangement  of  details  on  an  envelope  often 
varies  ;  it  should,  however,  be  neat  and  easily  read. 


^Cl^/-7-l^4- 

C/.    ^je^^x^  <^  '^o.^'zAd'yiy., 

s-^S  ^/^-/^   ^A^/, 

■  (^Wi-i^-cAedyCe'i. 

CT^l  iyCZ'C-Cl'7t€l. 

l6 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 


PLATE  VII 


Cifm-   ^^^^fn^^t^  S.   a(Qa^Ai^^ 


The  omission  on  envelopes  of  all  punctuation  except  that 
absolutely  necessar}'  is  often  practised.  In  that  case  the  super- 
scription would  read  as  follows,  periods  being  used  only  to 
indicate  abbreviations. 


I'l.ATK  VIII 


James  T.  Lewis  &  Co. 
216  Water  Street 
Winchester 
Indiana 


GOOD  FORM  37 

It  is  wise  to  write  out  in  full  the  name  of  the  city  and  the 
state.  Likewise  many  titles,  when  used  before  a  name  or 
on  the  envelope,  should  be  written  out.  Write  "  Professor 
George  J.  Benton,"  "  Colonel  Benjamin  R,  Bacon,"  "  Judge 
Lewis  C.  Jenkins,"  "  Reverend  John  C,  Overstreet."  How- 
ever, Doctor  and  a  few  other  titles  are  commonly  abbrevi- 
ated. Titles  are  usually  prefixed  to  the  name  if  they  would 
be  used  in  addressing  the  man  in  speech  ;  otherwise,  if  the 
title  is  to  be  written  at  all,  it  should  be  placed  in  a  line 
immediately  following  the  name.  Never  write  "  Hon.  Brown  " 
or  "  Rev.  Smith  "  or  "  Rev,  Dr,  George  U.  Smith  "  or  "  Prof. 
J,  Y.  Royster,  Ph.D," 

PLATE  IX 


Punctilious  writers  use  Esq.  or  Esquire  after  the  name  of 
those  men  for  whom  they  wish  to  show  marked  respect  or 
honor ;  but  when  this  title  is  appended,  no  other  one  should  be 
prefixed  to  the  name.  One  should  never  write  "  Mr.  Lewis  Y, 
Jackson,  Esquire."  But  this  use  of  "  Esquire  "  is  a  nicety 
observed  by  but  few,  even  in  friendly  letters,  where  one  is 
much  more  personal  than  in  business. 

"^7  13b 


38  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

During  one  year  the  Chicago  post  office  handled  more  than 
two  and  one-half  billion  pieces  of  mail  matter,  weighing  over 
175,000  tons.  Of  this  enormous  bulk  99.9964  per  cent  was 
handled  without  error,  the  records  indicating  only  one  mis- 
take in  27,130  pieces.  But  the  public  made  more  than  ten 
million  mistakes  in  addressing  mail  —  one  wrong  out  of  every 
146  pieces  mailed,  or  0.7  per  cent.  The  necessity  for  using 
care  in  writing  addresses  is  obvious. 

PLATE  X 


ojf^i^  c^-t'-^  ^cA<ioyC.                             X2AQ€i'nd€ui. 

EXERCISE  20  —  Written 

Be  sure  in  every  case  that  the  form  is  right.  Until  you 
write  the  form  correctly  as  a  matter  of  habit,  look  over  your 
work  to  see  that  you  have  included  all  six  of  the  essential 
parts  of  a  business  letter,  that  they  are  in  the  proper  order, 
that  the  formal  punctuation  is  used,  and  that  capital  letters 
are  in  the  right  places, 

a.  Write  forms  for  the  following  letters,  neglecting  the 
body.    Also  address  an  envelope  for  each  letter. 


GOOD  FORM  39 

1 .  A  letter  to  Aimer  Coe,  74  State  Street,  Chicago, 

2.  A  letter  to  Alexander  Steinmetz  and  Company,  who 
have  a  store  at  327  North  Hastings  Street,  in  the  capital 
city  of  California. 

3.  One  letter  from  John  L.  Macklin's  wife,  whose  name 
is  Mary,  to  her  dressmaker  ;  another  from  her  to  a  firm  with 
which  she  has  never  before  dealt. 

4.  A  letter  to  John  Matthews  Manly,  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  English  in  The  University  of  Chicago. 

5.  One  letter  from  the  widow  of  the  late  William  H. 
Sawyer  to  her  attorney ;  another  from  her  to  the  Pure  Food 
Company,  87  Battle  Avenue,  Cincinnati, 

b.  Write  the  following  letters  in  full. 

1 .  Order  a  bill  of  groceries  from  a  merchant  in  your  own 
town. 

2.  Send  $1.50  to  the  publishers,  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany, Boston,  and  ask  to  have  a  copy  of  William  Vaughan 
Moody's  "  Poems  "  mailed  to  a  friend  of  yours. 

3.  As  applicant  for  some  position,  you  need  to  refer  to  a 
former  teacher.    Write  asking  for  permission. 

4.  Apply  for  the  position.  State  everything  that  your 
prospective  employer  is  likely  to  wish  to  know. 

5.  You  are  staying  at  the  Auditorium  Hotel,  Chicago,  for 
a  fortnight.  Write  to  your  postmaster  at  home,  asking  him 
to  forward  your  mail  to  your  new  address.  Second-class  mail 
matter  cannot  be  forwarded  without  extra  postage.  What  shall 
he  do  about  it } 

6.  Write  to  The  Perry  Mason  Co.,  201  Columbus  Ave- 
nue, Boston,  Massachusetts,  and  ask  them  to  send  your  copy 
of  the  Yoiitli  s  Companion  to  your  summer  home  during  the 
hot  season.  Be  sure  that  you  give  them  all  the  information 
they  need. 


40 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


7.  Imagine  yourself  in  a  very  small  town  on  Easter 
Monday.  Write  to  John  Alexander,  395  Wall  Street,  New 
York,  asking  him  to  send  you  a  copy  of  a  book.  Ha\e  you 
a  charge  account  with  him  ? 

8.  As  manager  of  your  baseball  team,  order  a  bill  of  three 
or  four  items  from  A.  G.  Spaulding  &  Brothers,  147  Wabash 
Avenue,  Chicago.    How  shall  the  goods  be  sent .-' 

9.  A  young  woman  wrote  to  A.  C.  Jenkins  &  Co., 
247  Seventh  Street,  Chicago,  for  twenty  copies  of  "  An- 
drew Lang's  Fairy  Books."  The  company  replied  that  as 
there  are  a  Green  Fair}'  Book,  a  Red  Fairy  Book,  a  Purple 
Fair}'  Book,  etc.,  all  edited  by  ]\Ir.  Lang,  they  did  not  know 
which  to  send.  They  also  stated  that  the  price  of  each  book 
is  $1.50  and  asked  how  the  books  should  be  sent.  To  this 
the  young  woman  replied.    Write  the  three  letters. 

10.  Miss  Pauline  Ship  of  Elizabeth  Citv',  North  Carolina, 
wrote  to  Curtis  &  Cameron,  Pierce  Building,  Boston,  asking 
the  price  of  a  Copley  print  of  Burne-Jones's  picture  "  Hope," 
and  requesting  a  catalogue  of  their  publications.  The  pub- 
lishers courteously  replied  that  their  catalogues  are  sent  only 
on  receipt  of  twenty-five  cents  and  that  the  Burne-Jones 
picture  is  published  in  several  sizes,  on  each  of  which  they 
quote  a  price.  Owing  to  a  mistake  of  Miss  Ship  herself,  the 
letter  for  her  is  delivered  to  her  cousin,  Peter  Ship.  (What 
was  her  error  ?)  Upon  receiving  the  letter  finally,  she  sent 
twenty-five  cents  and  requested  a  copy  of  the  catalogue.  This 
the  publishers  sent,  with  a  letter  hoping  to  be  favored  with 
an  order.  Miss  Ship  ordered  a  picture,  and  the  publishers 
acknowledged  the  order.  Write  these  six  letters  and  an 
envelope  for  each. 


CHAPTER  III 

DEFINITENESS 
EXERCISE  21  —  Oral 

READING  AND   STUDYING  A   DEFINITE   DESCRIPTION 

Read  carefully  Jim  Hawkins's  description  of  Treasure 
Island  as  the  ship  approached  it.  Prepare  for  oral  reading 
and  be  ready  to  answer  the  questions  that  follow  the  selection. 

a.  A  belt  of  fog  had  lifted  almost  simultaneously  with  the  appear- 
ance of  the  moon.  Away  to  the  southwest  of  us  we  saw  two  low 
hills,  about  a  couple  of  miles  apart,  and  rising  behind  one  of  them 
a  third  and  higher  hill,  whose  peak  was  still  buried  in  fog.  All 
three  seemed  sharp  and  conical  in  figure. 

d.  The  appearance  of  the  island  when  I  came  on  deck  next 
morning  was  altogether  changed.  We  were  now  lying  becalmed 
about  half  a  mile  to  the  southeast  of  the  low  eastern  coast.  Grey- 
coloured  woods  covered  a  large  part  of  the  surface.  This  even  tint 
was  indeed  broken  up  by  streaks  of  yellow  sandbreak  in  the  lower 
lands,  and  by  many  tall  trees  of  the  pine  family,  out-topping  the 
others  —  some  singly,  some  in  clumps;  but  the  general  colouring 
was  uniform  and  sad.  The  hills  ran  up  clear  above  the  vegetation 
in  spires  of  naked  rock.  All  were  strangely  shaped,  and  the  Spy- 
glass, which  was  by  three  or  four  hundred  feet  the  tallest  on  the 
island,  was  likewise  the  strangest  in  configuration,  running  up 
sheer  from  almost  every  side,  and  then  suddenly  cut  off  at  the  top 
like  a  pedestal  to  put  a. statue  on. 

c.  We  brought  up  just  where  the  anchor  was  on  the  chart,  about 
a  third  of  a  mile  from  either  shore,  the  mainland  on  one  side  and 
Skeleton  Island  on  the  other.  The  bottom  was  clean  sand.  The 
plunge  of  our  anchor  sent  up  clouds  of  birds  wheeling  and  crying 

41 


42  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

over  the  woods ;  but  in  less  than  a  minute  tliey  were  down  again, 
and  all  was  once  more  silent. 

The  place  was  entirely  land-locked,  buried  in  woods,  the  trees 
coming  right  down  to  high-water  mark,  the  shores  mostly  flat,  and 
the  hills  standing  round  at  a  distance  in  a  sort  of  amphitheatre,  one 
here,  one  there.  .  .  .  The  foliage  around  that  part  of  the  shore 
had  a  kind  of  poisonous  brightness. 

There  was  not  a  breath  of  air  moving,  nor  a  sound  but  that  of 
the  surf  booming  half  a  mile  away  along  the  beaches  and  against 
the  rocks  outside.  A  peculiar  stagnant  smell  hung  over  the  anchor- 
age —  a  smell  of  sodden  leaves  and  rotting  tree  trunks.  I  observed 
the  doctor  sniffing  and  sniffing,  like  some  one  tasting  a  bad  egg.    • 

"  I  don't  know  about  treasure,"  he  said,  "  but  I  '11  stake  my  wig 
there  's  fever  here."  —  Stevenson,  "  Treasure  Island  " 

a.  How  far  away  do  you  imagine  the  ship  here  ?  What 
time  of  day  is  it }    What  did  Jim  notice  .? 

/;,  How  had  the  appearance  of  the  island  "altogether 
changed  "  ?  Why  ?  What  details  given  here  could  not  have 
been  seen  before  ?  Describe  the  island  as  you  see  it  from 
this  point  of  view. 

c.  What  further  changes  are  here  described  ?  What  could 
not  have  been  seen  before  ?  What  details  make  this  seem  a 
disagreeable  place  } 

In  general.  What  words  make  the  scene  most  real  to  you  ? 
Define  conical,  spires,  pedestal,  amphitheatre,  stag7iant. 

This  description  makes  us  see  the  scene  vividly  because  it 
is  definite.  It  is  important  for  the  understanding  of  the  story 
that  all  readers  shall  see  pretty  nearly  the  same  thing  here 
—  so  important,  indeed,  that,  besides  this  careful  word-picture, 
the  author  has  given  a  map  of  the  island.  You  have  noticed 
that  the  description  is  definite  in  four  ways  :  first,  in  subject ; 
second,  in  details  ;  third,  in  point  of  view ;  and  fourth,  in 
words.  Each  of  these  kinds  of  definiteness  is  important,  and 
each  will  be  considered  in  turn. 


DEFINITENESS  43 

A.    DEFINITE   SUBJECT 

EXERCISE  22  —  Written 

NARROWING  A   SUBJECT 

From  a  composition  already  written  see  whether  you  can 
choose  a  smaller  part  of  your  subject  to  write  on  more  defi- 
nitely. For  example,  from  "A  Picnic,"  you  might  select 
"My  First  Boat  Ride,"  or  "Games  in  the  Park,"  or  "An 
Upset."    Write  on  this  definite  subject. 

EXERCISE  23  —  Written 
WRITING   ON   A   CLEARLY   DEFINED   SUBJECT 

Picture  a  scene  that  you  might  call  " in  Autumn," 

describing  some  particular  spot  at  some  particular  hour,  in- 
cluding no  people,  no  motion,  no  sound,  except  such  sound 
and  motion  as  might  be  indicated  in  a  painting.  Make  only 
one  paragraph. 

EXERCISE  24  —  Oral 

FINDING   DEFINITE   SUBJECTS 

In  the  following  brief  composition  .find  at  least  five  good 
subjects  for  more  interesting  narratives.  Which  would  you 
choose,  and  why  } 

A   TRIP   TO   THE   CITY 

Last  fall  I  took  a  trip  to  Chicago,  and  had  a  very  good  time. 
We  left  home  on  the  early  car,  and  after  a  good  deal  of  trouble 
arrived  at  the  station.  The  through  train  had  gone,  and  we  had  to 
take  the  slow  one.  On  the  way  we  ran  into  the  end  of  a  freight 
car  and  smashed  some  of  our  windows,  but  nobody  was  hurt.  In 
Chicago  we  visited  Lincoln  Park  and  the  animals  there.  We  also 
went  to  Marshall  Field's  and  I  bought  some  Christmas  presents. 


44  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

One  day  we  saw  a.  play.  I  enjoyed  the  street  sights  as  much  as 
anything,  for  I  had  never  been  in  a  big  city  before.  We  came 
liome  after  a  week's  visit  and  were  sorry  to  leave.  Our  house 
seemed  ver}'  quiet  that  night. 

You  have  already  noticed  that  the  choice  of  a  subject  on 
which  you  can  write  sincerely  is  very  important ;  the  choice 
of  a  subject  fitted  to  your  purpose  is  hardly  less  so.  If  you 
were  to  write  a  whole  book  or  even  a  magazine  stor)%  the 
life  of  a  poor  newsboy  might  be  appropriate  ;  but  if  you  are 
to  write  only  a  one-page  theme,  a  picture  of  the  little  fellow 
shivering  on  some  particular  street-corner  at  some  particular 
time  will  probably  give  your  readers  a  better  notion  of  him 
than  so  condensed  an  account  of  his  life.  It  is  well  to  remem- 
ber, too,  that  a  page  of  your  writing  is  not  nearly  equal  to  a 
page  of  print ;  compare,  for  instance,  your  copy  of  the  dictation 
exercise  from  Chapter  II  with  the  original  in  the  book. 


EXERCISE  25  —  Written 
MAKING  DEFINITE  TITLES  TO  SHOW  DEFINITE  SUBJECTS 

Make  ten  titles  suitable  for  one-page  themes  suggested  by 
the  following  large  topics.  Make  definite  titles  which  would 
suggest  exactly  the  subject-matter  of  the  theme. 

1.  Electricity. 

2.  Living  Out-of-doors. 

3.  Baseball  in  America. 

4.  New  York  City. 

5.  The  History  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Civil  War. 

7.  The  Stor>'  of  My  Life. 

8.  Arithmetic. 

9.  Games. 

10.  Work  and  Play. 


DEFINITENESS  45 

In  an  argument  it  is  necessary  in  the  very  beginning  for 
the  disputants  to  agree  as  to  what  they  are  arguing  about,  — 
in  other  words,  to  select  a  definite  subject  for  the  more  or 
less  informal  composition.  Not  infrequently  two  persons, 
although  really  in  perfect  agreement,  will  dispute  acrimoni- 
ously, simply  because  neither  one  takes  pains  to  make  his 
terms  absolutely  definite.  In  such  a  case  it  is  clear  that  sin- 
cerity and  good  form,  unsupported  by  definiteness,  will  be 
far  from  effective.  In  any  event,  no  one  can  well  be  convinced 
unless  he  knows  exactly  what  the  dispute  is  about. 

If  some  one  hears,  "His  conduct  is  indefensible,"  it  is 
perfectly  obvious  that  he  must  know  what  the  conduct  was 
and  the  circumstances  before  he  can  agree  or  disagree  with 
the  statement ;  but  it  is  not  always  so  obvious  that  there  must 
be  perfect  definiteness  in  the  terms  where  they  are  not  so 
baldly  stated.  Often,  without  waiting  for  explanation,  some 
one  will  interpret,  or  misinterpret,  for  himself  and  thus  create 
an  unnecessary  issue.  And  even  in  formal  debate  it  some- 
times happens  that,  because  of  an  inexactly  stated  topic,  each 
side  will  find  itself  in  essential  aCTeement  with  the  other. 


EXERCISE  26  -  Oral 
MAKING   A   DEFINITE   TITLE   FOR   ARGUMENT 

a.  Restate  the  following  topics  so  that  they  may  be  defi- 
nitely discussed. 

1.  Girls  should  not  participate  in  athletics. 

2.  Idle  men  should  not  be  tolerated  in  town. 

3.  Examinations  are  useless. 

4.  Pupils  should  be  permitted  to  study  together. 

5.  Unionism  should  be  supported  by  everybody. 

6.  Everybody  should  attend  church  every  Sunday. 


46  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFFION 

b.  From  the  following  subjects  make  good,  definite  topics 
for  argument. 

1.  Manual  training  in  the  schools.  5.  Shylock's  character. 

2.  Elective  studies.  6.  School  fraternities. 

3.  Interscholastic  contests.  7.  Free  textbooks. 

4.  Student  self-government.  8.  Weekly  holidays. 

EXERCISE  21  — Oral 
STICKING  TO   A   DEFINITE   SUBJECT 

Of  course  there  is  no  virtue  in  having  a  definite  title  if  the 
writer  does  not  stick  to  it.  This  matter  of  sticking  to  the 
point  will  be  studied  more  carefully  later  (Chapter  V).  For 
the  present,  remember  that  the  subject  must  be  very  carefully 
defined  or  limited,  not  only  in  your  title  but  in  your  own 
thought  and  in  your  expression  of  it. 

a.  What  is  wrong  with  the  following  composition  ? 

Picture  of  a  Building 

I  am  standing  in  front  of  a  large  castle.  This  castle  is  built  of 
stone  blocks,  making  it  look  old  and  gray.  The  sky  is  blue  and  the 
birds  are  singing.  The  grass  is  very  green,  and  the  sun  is  just 
coming  up  toward  the  east.  Down  near  the  door  I  see  an  old  man, 
half  lying  and  half  sitting.  He  is  very  poor  and  seems  to  be  in 
great  agony.  I  can  hear  him  groan  as  if  crying  for  help.  His  hair 
is  long  and  gray. 

b.  Speak  briefly  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  being 
careful  to  stick  to  it. 

1.  \\'hy  the  days  grow  short  in  winter. 

2.  How  to  attract  the  birds. 

3.  Why  I  did  (not)  like  our  hotel. 

4.  How  the  garbage  is  collected. 

5.  How  asphalt  (or  macadamized)  roads  are  laid. 

6.  How  cotton  is  ginned  and  baled. 


DEFINITENESS  47 

7.  How  a  typewriter  works. 

8.  What  happens  at  the  fire-engine  house  when  an  alarm  is  rung  in. 

9.  How  to  drag  an  earth  road. 

10.  How  broom  corn  is  cut. 

11.  How  to  put  in  a  sleeve. 

12.  How  to  plane  a  board. 

B.    DEFINITE  DETAILS 

One  reason  why  a  small,  very  definite  topic  is  better  than 
a  large,  vague  one,  is  because  on  such  a  topic  we  can  write 
briefly  and  yet  give  the  definite  little  details  that  prove  our 
sincerity  and  interest  our  reader.  All  of  us  like  to  read 
stories  in  which  the  writer  gives  specific,  definite  little  acts 
and  looks  of  the  characters,  and  tells  exactly  how  to  picture 
the  scene.  All  of  us  like  to  receive  letters  that  definitely 
tell  the  little  things  instead  of  merely,  "I  am  having  a 
good  time,"  or  "'  School  is  very  much  changed  this  year." 
Since  the  choice  of  details  is  very  important  if  we  wish  to 
make  a  letter  interesting,  it  will  be  studied  more  at  length 
in  the  next  chapter. 

EXERCISE  28  —  Written  and  Oral 
CHOOSING   DEFINITE   DETAILS 

Make  lists  of  details  that  you  might  mention  in  writing  on 
each  of  the  five  topics  suggested  by  Exercise  24.  Discuss 
these  in  class,  choosing  the  most  definite  and  appropriate. 

EXERCISE  29  —  Written  or  Oral 
WRITING   OR   SPEAKING   SINCERELY   AND    DEFINITELY 

Write  or  speak  on  one  of  the  five  topics  discussed  in 
Exercise  28.  Choose  the  one  nearest  to  your  own  experience. 
Give  a  sincere  and  definite  picture. 


48  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  30  —  Written 
DESCRIBING  WITH   DEFINITE   DETAILS 

Go  out  and  look  for  a  little  scene  worth  describing ;  note 
on  the  spot  details  that  you^  need  in  order  to  make  others 
see  it  vividly.    Write  the  description. 

EXERCISE  31  —  Oral  or  Written 
EXPLAINING   WITH    DEFINITE   DETAILS 

Speak  or  write  on  one  of  these  topics,  choosing  your  details 
with  care  to  make  every  point  clear, 

1.  How  a  gasoline  engine  works. 

2.  How  wireless  messages  are  sent. 

3.  How  a  sewing  machine  ties  a  thread. 

4.  How  a  duck  is  adapted  for  swimming. 

C.    DEFINITE    POINT    (3F   VIEW 

From  what  point  of  view  is  Treasure  Island  (pages  4 1-42) 
first  pictured  ?  How  has  the  point  of  view  changed  in  the 
second  description  ?  in  the  third  .?  The  term  /oh/t  of  viciv 
includes  more  than  mere  position.  In  this  case,  not  only  does 
the  ship  approach  the  island,  but  the  day  comes  tp  reveal 
details.  Stevenson  never  loses  his  point  of  view  ;  that  is,  he 
always  pictures  things  as  they  would  appear  to  a  given  person 
in  a  given  position  under  given  circumstances. 

In  the  composition  on  the  boy  returning  home  over  the 
hill  (page  12)  the  writer  keeps  the  point  of  view  well  until 
he  comes  to  the  dots  in  the  necktie  and  the  buttons  on  the 
coat  sleeve.  He  could  scarcely  have  seen  these  from  his  sup- 
posed position.  When  could  he  have  seen  them  1  A  break 
in  the  point  of  view,  such  as  this,  shows  insincerity.  If  you 
are  sincere,  vou  will  not  make  such  mistakes. 


DEFINITENESS  49 

EXERCISE  32  —  Oral 
SEEING  THE   DEFINITE   TOINT   OF  VIEW 

In  these  two  descriptions  note  every  detail  and  every  word 
that  indicates  the  physical  point  of  view  of  the  writer,  as  near 
or  far,  looking  up,  down,  or  across.  Note  also  the  attitude, 
or  mental  point  of  view,  of  the  writer. 

NEAR   AND    FAR,  LOOKING   UP 

[We]  explored  Pompeii's  weird  and  haggard  ruins.  I  am  afraid 
we  were  not  very  keen  on  the  archaeology,  but  the  scenic  effects 
and  the  intimate  human  suggestiveness  were  most  interesting. 
There  lay  the  little  city,  scarred  and  deserted,  the  ashes  of  the 
homes  of  men,  with  la  Ve'suve,  stern  and  secret,  rising  up  behind 
it,  overlooking  the  havoc  it  had  wrought  without  relenting.  The 
sky  was  purest  blue,  the  ruins  gray,  with  here  and  there  the  relief 
of  pinks  and  yellows  in  the  ancient  frescoes ;  just  beyond  rose  a 
file  of  stone  pine-trees,  like  sentinels  overlooking  the  desolation  of 
a  fought-out  field  of  battle.  The  silence  was  profound  and  yet  to 
me  it  was  strangely  soulless,  and  the  impression  left  deepest  upon 
my  mind  was  of  a  piercing  and  sinister  mockery.  I  was  glad  at  last 
to  get  away  from  those  gaudy  futilities  of  domestic  decoration  flung 
like  a  dead  beggar's  rags  against  the  pitiless  majesty  of  \'esuvius. 

NEAR   AND   FAR,    LOOKING   DOWN 

The  situation  is  beautiful  beyond  description,  a  combination  of 
sternness  in  the  ensemble  with  luxuriant  softness  in  the  detail, 
which  surpasses  even  Capri  and  Sorrento.  Our  casement  windows 
on  the  east  open  upon  a  great  paved  terrace  overhanging  the  Gulf 
of  Salerno  and  full-fronting  the  austere  and  jagged  peak  of  Monte 
Fenestra.  The  terrace  rail  is  embowered  in  a  wealth  of  Banksia 
roses  and  the  white  stone  seat  lining  the  parapet  conjures  an  Alma 
Tadema  picture  instantly  before  the  eyes. 

Below  us  in  their  narrow  valleys  cluster  the  small  hamlets  of 
Minori  and  Maiori  with  their  tiny  strip  of  beach,  the  high  road  of 
Salerno  passing  around  the  cliff's  edge  like  a  thread.    The  bold 


50  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

headland  of  Capo  d'Orso  bounds  the  near  view,  where  the  tur- 
quoise blue  water  of  the  gulf  laps  its  feet,  but  beyond  the  cliffs  and 
beyond  the  sea  lies  the  far  plain  of  Paestum,  and,  rising  beyond 
the  still  snowy  peaks  of  the  Apennines,  faintly  outlined  like  a  vision 
of  some  jewelled  city  celestial  through  the  sun-steeped  haze.  .  .  . 
Straight  before  me,  down  the  steep  cliff  side,  rise  the  spires  of 
cypress-trees ;  two  umbrella  pines  stand  up  stark  against  the  sky ; 
sheer  below  me  is  the  intensely  blue  Salernian  water ;  these  white, 
ivy -grown  pillars  at  my  right  hand  and  at  my  left-frame  in  the  panel. 
Cakolixk  Atwati:){  Mason,  "The  Spell  of  Italy  "  ^ 

EXERCISE  33  —  Written 
PICTURING  ^YITII  A   DEFINITE  POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  PEACE 

Picture  a  scene  "  Looking  Down  "  or  "  Loolving  Up," 
Keep  your  point  of  view  so  well  that  the  class  can  readily 
guess  your  position  without  hearing  the  title.  Be  sure  not 
to  change  the  time  ;  keep  it  past  or  present  throughout. 
Here  are  two  good  specimens  of  this  kind  of  writing. 

a.  I  see  a  long  wide  strip  of  yellowish,  brownish,  green  some- 
thing which  must  be  grass.  Stretching  across  this  in  all  directions 
are  tiny  black  lines  that  look  like  hairs  from  a  black  cat's  back.  At 
the  farther  end  of  this  strip,  between  two  twin-sister  hills,  lies 
something  which  looks  like  either  a  piece  of  sky  dropped  down  or 
a  mirror  turned  right  side  up.  From  this  a  narrow  silver  ribbon 
winds  down  into  a  brilliantly  colored  bit  of  wood.  At  the  left  of 
this  I  see  a  bit  of  woodland  which  looks  like  the  rainbow  wound 
into  a  ball  and  dropped. 

/>.  I  see  the  sun  shining  through  the  leaves  of  the  tree,  and  in 
places  the  blue  sky  with  dreamy  white  clouds  floating  across  it. 
The  leaves  of  the  tree  are  green,  but  up  the  trunk  and  along  the 
boughs  some  woodbine  runs,  the  leaves  of  which  are  beautiful  with 
their  red  and  yellow  showing  brighdy  against  the  brown  bark  and 
the  more  sombre  green  leaves  of  the  tree.  Far  u]5  in  tlie  fork  of  a 
branch  I  see  a  brown  bird's-nest  built  snugly  there. 

1  Copyright,  1909,  by  L.  C.  Page  &  Company,  Inc. 


DEFINITENESS  5 1 

EXERCISE  34  —  Oral 
STUDYING  WAYS  OF  SHOWING  DEFINITE  POINT  OF  VIEW 

The  point  of  view  differs  not  only  with  position  but  with 
circumstances,  as  you  have  already  seen.  Study  carefully  the 
following  paragraphs  from  Stevenson's  "  Travels  with  a  Don- 
key." How  are  you  kept  reminded  of  the  fact  that  it  is  night .'' 
Why  does  Stevenson  say  at  first  that  he  tied  Modestine  to  a 
l?ranc/i,  and  later  saw  her  tied  to  a  deec/i  f  How  do  you  know 
that  the  clouds  have  cleared  and  a  fair  day  is  coming }  How 
do  you  know,  from  the  paragraph  beginning  "'  Twice  in  the 
course  of  the  dark  hours,"  that  the  writer  is  lying  down  .'' 
Define  and  use  in  good  sentences  the  following  words  : 
density,  discriminate,  nuviitigatcd,  haggard,  desponding, 
livid,  abating,  inimitable.  Find  every  word  or  expression 
that  helps  to  show  definite  point  of  view  of  place,  of  time, 
and  of  person,  noting  especially  how  the  point  of  view  may 
be  suggested  by  a  single  word. 

Suddenly,  at  a  single  swoop,  the  night  fell.  I  have  been  abroad 
in  many  a  black  night,  but  never  in  a  blacker.  A  glimmer  of  rocks, 
a  glimmer  of  the  track  where  it  was  well  beaten,  a  certain  fleecy 
density,  or  night  within  night,  for  a  tree,  —  this  was  all  that  I  could 
discriminate.  The  sky  was  simply  darkness  overhead  ;  even  the  fly- 
ing clouds  pursued  their  way  invisibly  to  human  eyesight.  I  could 
not  distinguish  my  hand  at  arm's  length  from  the  track,  nor  my 
goad,  at  the  same  distance,  from  the  meadows  or  the  sky. 

At  last  black  trees  began  to  show  upon  my  left,  and,  suddenly 
crossing  the  road,  made  a  cave  of  unmitigated  blackness  right  in 
front.  I  call  it  a  cave  without  exaggeration  ;  to  pass  below  that  arch 
of  leaves  was  like  entering  a  dungeon.  I  felt  about  until  my  hand 
encountered  a  stout  branch,  and  to  this  I  tied  Modestine,  a  haggard, 
drenched,  desponding  donkey.  .  .  . 

I  touched  the  spirit  lamp.  .  .  .  The  wind  roared  unwearyingly 
among  the  trees ;   I  could  hear  the  boughs  tossing  and  the  leaves 


52  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmOX 

churning  through  half  a  mile  of  forest ;  yet  the  scene  of  my  encamp- 
ment was  not  only  as  black  as  the  pit,  but  admirably  sheltered.  At 
the  second  match  the  wick  caught  flame.  The  light  was  both  livid 
and  shifting ;  but  it  cut  me  off  from  the  universe,  and  doubled  the 
darkness  of  the  surrounding  night.  .  .  . 

The  wind  among  the  trees  was  my  lullaby.  Sometimes  it  sounded 
for  minutes  together  with  a  steady  even  rush,  not  rising  nor  abating ; 
and  again  it  would  swell  and  burst  like  a  great  crashing  breaker, 
and  the  trees  would  patter  me  all  over  with  big  drops  from  the  rain 
of  the  afternoon.  .  .  . 

Twice  in  the  course  of  the  dark  hours  ...  I  was  recalled  for  a 
brief  while  to  consciousness,  and  saw  a  star  or  two  overhead  and 
the  lace-like  edge  of  the  foliage  against  the  sky.  When  I  awoke  for 
the  third  time  (Wednesday,  September  25  th),  the  world  was  flooded 
with  a  blue  light,  the  mother  of  the  dawn.  I  saw  the  leaves  labor- 
ing in  the  wind,  and  the  ribbon  of  the  road;  and,  on  turning  my 
head,  there  was  Modestine  tied  to  a  beech,  and  standing  half  across 
the  path  in  an  attitude  of  inimitable  patience. 

Stevexson,  "  Travels  with  a  Donkey  " 

EXERCISE  35  —  Oral 
POINT   OF  VIEW   IX   TIME 

\\'hat  is  wrong  with  the  point  of  view  in  the  following 
composition  .?    What  shows  insincerity  here  ? 

The  night  was  pitchy  black.  As  we  groped  our  way  along,  a  tall 
dark  man  passed  us.  At  that  moment  he  took  out  his  watch,  and 
under  his  coat  we  caught  the  gleam  of  a  revolver. 

EXERCISE  36  —  Written 

PICTURING  WITH   A  DEFINITE   POINT  OF  VIEW   AS   TO 
PLACE   AND   TIME 

\\Tite  on  one  of  the  following  topics  : 

1.  Down  Cellar  in  the  Dark. 

2.  Going  up  to  Bed. 

3.  In  the  Garden  at  Night. 


DEFINITENESS  53 

4.  When  the  Street  Lamps  Went  Out. 

5.  Conning  Home  at  Midnight. 

6.  Down  the  Wet  Street  at  Night. 

7.  How  Day  Comes  in  Our  Street. 

8.  The  City  from  the  Roof  at  Night. 

9.  My  Room  at  3  a.m. 
10.  From  a  Train  at  Night. 

Do  not  tell  a  story,  but  give  a  picture,  though  it  may  be  a 
moving  picture.  By  the  way  in  which  you  describe  everything 
keep  your  reader  constantly  reminded  of  the  darkness.  The 
following  theme  may  prove  suggestive.  Can  you  improve  on  it .'' 

Just  as  the  town  clock  struck  midnight  I  reached  the  gate  in 
front  of  our  house.  The  moon  was  almost  hidden  behind  a  dark 
cloud.  A  mysterious  stillness  filled  the  air  and  was  broken  only  by 
the  stamp  of  the  horses'  hoofs  in  a  barn  near  by,  and  the  bark  of 
some  dog.  Across  the  street  and  at  my  feet  were  little  pools  of 
shiny,  black-looking  water.  A  neighbor's  house  directly  in  front 
of  me  cast  dark,  queer  shadows  across  the  road.  Farther  down  the 
street  was  a  high  square  something,  and  near  it  a  large  black  oblong 
with  a  cupola  at  one  end.  Many  things  looking  like  great  black 
singing-tops  turned  upside  down  were  scattered  about.  Away  in 
the  distance  was  a  long  black  wall  with  a  glimmer  of  light  in  one 
end  of  it.  Slowly  coming  toward  me  was  something  white  and 
ghostly.  By  the  sudden  turning  of  a  corner  I  saw  it  was  a  white 
horse  drawing  a  spring-wagon  behind  it.  Moving  around  farther 
away  was  a  tall  object  looking  like  a  fence  post,  and  it  was  carrying 
a  lantern  which  gave  out  a  pale  gleam  of  light. 

EXERCISE  37  —  Oral  or  Written 

PICTURING   THE   SAME   SCENE   FROM   TWO   POINTS 
OF  VIEW 

Describe  a  room  in  daylight,  and  the  same  room  as  dark- 
ness gathers  or  as  day  breaks.  Choose  a  room  of  some  dis- 
tinct character,  and  do  not  merely  catalogue  the  contents,  but 
give  a  picture.    Be  sincere  ;  tell  what  you  see.    Try  to  name 


54  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

the  various  shapes  that  you  see  in  the  dusk,  and  thus  avoid 
repetition  of  the  words  sonictJiiiii:^  or  object.  The  following 
theme  is  faulty  in  this  respect.  What  good  descriptive 
phrases  has  it  ? 

From  the  cellar  door  where  I  am,  things  look  very  mysterious 
and  ghostly.  To  my  right,  and  back  a  little  bit,  is  something  square 
and  of  an  indistinct  gray  color.  I  can  see  only  one  corner  of  it^  for 
it  joins  the  wall  on  one  side  and  extends  back  a  long  way.  In  front 
of  it  is  something  about  half  as  tall,  rather  narrow  and  round.  It 
glimmers  in  the  darkness.  At  the  left  of  me  is  something  tall, 
slim,  and  white.  On  this  are  hanging  great,  mysterious  dark  and 
light  things  that  look  like  people  standing  in  a  long  silent  row. 
At  the  farther  end  of  the  room  is  something  that  shines  some- 
times, and  in  some  places  is  black.  It  has  arms  that  extend  upward 
and  outward,  and  at  its  feet  I  can  see  something  red  and  fiery 
that  looks  like  the  eyes  of  a  monster.  In  front  of  me  is  the  most 
awful  object  of  all.  It  is  long  and  black  and  is  raised  up  off  the 
floor.    It  looks  just  like  a  coffin. 

EXERCISE  38  —  Oral 

THE  NARRATOR'S   POINT  OF  VIEW 

How  is  the  dog's  point  of  view  given  here } 

The  Master  was  walking  most  unsteady,  his  legs  tripping  each 
other.  But  even  when  the  Master's  legs  twist  and  bend  a  bit,  you 
mustn't  think  he  can't  reach  you.  Indeed,  that  is  the  time  he 
kicks  most  frequent.  So  I  kept  behind  him  in  the  shadow,  or  ran  in 
the  middle  of  the  street.  He  stopped  at  many  public  houses  with 
swinging  doors,  those  doors  that  are  cut  so  high  from  the  sidewalk 
that  you  can  look  in  under  them,  and  see  if  the  Master  is  inside. 
At  night,  when  I  peep  beneath  them,  the  man  at  the  counter  will 
see  me  first  and  say,  "  Here  's  the  Kid,  J  err)',  come  to  take  you 
home.  Get  a  move  on  you  "  ;  and  the  Master  will  stumble  out  and 
follow  me.  It 's  lucky  for  us  I  'm  so  white,  for,  no  matter  how  dark 
the  night,  he  can  always  see  me  ahead,  just  out  of  reach  of  his  foot. 
Richard  H.arding  Davis,  "  The  Bar  Sinister '' 


DEFINITENESS  55 

EXERCISE  39  —  Written 
WRITING   FROM   ANOTHER'S    POINT   OF  VIEW 

If  you  can  imagine  the  feelings  of  a  horse,  write  the  account 
of  his  first  meeting  with  an  automobile  as  told  by  himself ; 
or  write  an  account  of  a  fire  as  given  by  one  of  the  engine 
horses.  If  you  prefer,  you  may  give  the  canary's  description 
of  the  house  cat,  or  your  dog's  report  of  an  adventure  with  a 
tramp,  or  some  similar  narrative.  Be  sure  to  keep  the  point 
of  view  of  the  animal,  though  of  course  you  will  make  him 
more  or  less  human  in  many  ways. 

£>.    DEFINITE   WORDS 

Not  only  must  we  have  a  definite  subject,  definite  details, 
and  a  definite  point  of  view ;  but  in  order  to  express  these 
we  must  command  definite  words,  and  use  them  exactly. 
Here  again  sincerity  enters  ;  for  if  we  really  care  to  tell  the 
truth  about  what  we  hear  or  see  or  imagine  or  think,  we  shall 
not  be  satisfied  with  any  but  precisely  the  right  word  to  fit 
our  need.  Then  if  we  are  caring  about  these  definite  words, 
we  shall  be  likely  to  keep  a  sharper  lookout,  and  to  think 
more  clearly  too.  So  definite  words  give  us  more  definite 
thoughts,  and  definite  thoughts  give  us  more  definite  words 
—  or  at  least  set  us  to  seeking  for  them. 

EXERCISE  40  —  Oral  and  Written 
THE  VALUE   OF  A   DEFINITE   WORD 

A  part  of  growing-up  ought  to  be  growing  in  ability  to  see 
differences  and  distinctions,  and  to  find  words  that  express 
these.  Some  people  seem  to  stop-  growing  in  this  respect 
as  soon  as  they  have  enough  words  to  make  themselves 
understood  about  everyday  matters  ;  they  use  third  or  fourth 


56  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFITON 

grade  vocabularies  all  the  rest  of  their  lives.  (What  is  a 
vocabulary  ?)  What  definite  terms  have  you  learned  since 
the  third  grade  in  arithmetic  ?  in  algebra  ?  in  geography  ?  in 
grammar  ?  in  literature  ?  in  other  subjects  ?  Write  out  a  defi- 
nition iorglacic7',  inidtiplicand, predicate.  If  you  did  not  know 
these  terms  but  had  the  ideas  for  which  they  stand,  how  many 
words  would  you  have  to  use  instead  of  each  name  ?  Show  that 
the  use  of  a  definite  word  like  transitive  in  a  sentence  ought  to 
carry  with  it  the  whole  definition.  Look  up  the  meaning  of 
definition.    How  is  it  related  to  definite  ? 

EXERCISE  41  —  Written 
USING  NEW   WORDS   DEFINITELY 
From  the  selections  given  in  this  chapter  choose  ten  words 
not  in  your  own  speaking  vocabulary  which  you  would  like 
to  adopt.    Use  each  in  a  sentence  to  show  its  meaning. 

EXERCISE  42  —  Written 
PICTURING  WITH   DEFINITE  WORDS 

Picture  a  scene,  using  correctly  and  effectively  as  many 
words  as  you  can  from  one  of  the  following  groups  • 

I  11 

leaden  serene 

tempestuous  placid 

murky  glowing 

dim  breathless 

horrible  magical 

awful  harmonious 

lashing  filmy 

stinging  drowsy 

quivering  floated 

inevitable  pervaded 


DEFINITENESS  57 

EXERCISE  43  —  Oral 

DISTINGUISHING   BETWEEN  MOST  AND  ALMOST 

Almost  means  "nearly";  viost  means  "in  the  highest 
degree."  Use  these  words  correctly  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  be  careful  of  their  use  as  you  speak  and  write. 

1.  We  are home. 

2.  He  was successful  in  his  attempt. 

3.  I  am tired  out. 

4.  I  am happy  to  have  the  opportunity. 

6.  When  we  are discouraged  we  can ahvays  gain  strength 

by  thinking  of  others. 

6.  He ahvays  waits  for  his  little  brother. 

7.  Remember  this particularly. 

8.  Aren't  we there.? 

9.  I  've forgotten. 

10.   I  was as  frightened  as  he. 

EXERCISE  44  —  Oral 

USING   PRONOUNS   DEFINITELY 

Pronouns,  especially  //,  ivhicJi,  and  tJicy,  are  very  trouble- 
some words  because  in  themselves  so  indefinite.  Since  a 
pronoun  represents  a  subject  of  thought  without  naming  it, 
we  must  be  careful  to  use  it  always  in  connection  with  some 
other  word  or  words  that  do  name  the  same  subject  of  thought. 
You  will  learn  more  about  the  use  of  pronouns  later ;  for  the 
present,  take  special  pains  to  be  sure  that  it,  zvhicJi,  and  they 
always  refer  to  something  definite  and  unmistakable.  See  if 
you  can  find  any  indefinite  use  of  it  in  your  last  five  written 
compositions ;  if  so,  bring  your  sentence  to  class  as  a  specimen, 
and  correct  it. 


58  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  45  —  Oral 
DISTINGUISHING   BETWEEN    C-/-\'  AND   MAY 

Fill  the  blanks  with  can  or  could  to  denote  ability  ;  with 
may  or  might  to  denote  permission. 

1.  You go  as  far  as  the  corner. 

2.  That  is  as  far  as  I  go. 

3.  Mother  said  we play  in  the  guest-room. 

4.  He  looks  strong,  as  if  he do  a  man's  work. 

5.  The  horse pull  us  along  at  ten  miles  an  hour. 

6.  We not  go  now,  although  mother  said  we .  because 

John  has  taken  the  wagon  and  we not  walk  so  far. 

7.  If  we only  have  seen  ourselves  in  the  glass,  we  should  have 

laughed  heartily. 

8.  No  man serve  two  masters. 

9.  They study  their  algebra  lesson  now,  for  they  have  learned 

what  the  assignment  is. 

10.  we  go  to  the  park  on  our  way  home  ? 

One  of  the  reasons  why  it  is  difficult  to  use  definite  words 
is  that  it  is  not  easy  to  use  our  senses  well  enough  to  have 
definite  ideas  to  express.  We  do  not  see  half  or  a  quarter  or 
a  tendi  of  what  we  might  see.  The  desire  to  tell  some  one  else 
of  our  discoveries  will  help  us  to  be  on  the  alert ;  and  the  more 
we  have  seen,  the  more  we  can  see.  A  trained  observer  will 
see  twenty  varieties  of  birds  on  a  walk  where  another,  looking 
with  untrained  eyes,  will  notice  only  a  robin  and  a  blue-jay.  A 
trained  observer  of  people  and  things — a  detective,  for  instance 
—  will  take  account  of  a  hundred  details  that  escape  others. 

"  I  see  ten  things  where  other  pcoplesee  only  one,"  says  Richard 
Harding  Davis's  "  amateur  "  detective ;  "  just  as  some  men  run  ten 
times  as  fast  as  other  men.  We  have  all  tried  it  out  often  at  the 
office  ;  put  all  sorts  of  junk  under  a  newspaper,  lifted  the  newspaper 
for  five  seconds,  and  then  each  man  wrote  down  what  he  had  seen. 
Out  of  twenty  things  I  would  remember  seventeen.    The  next  best 


DEFINITENESS  59 

guess  would  be  about  nine.  Once  I  saw  a  man  lift  his  coat  collar 
to  hide  his  face.  It  was  in  the  Grand  Central  Station.  I  stopped 
him  and  told  him  he  was  wanted.  Turned  out  he  7vas  wanted.  It 
was  Goldberg,  making  his  getaway  to  Canada." 

Richard  Harding  Davis,  "  The  Amateur  Detective  " 

Of  course,  as  the  doctor  remarked  to  the  detective,  such 
power  is  "  a  gift "  ;  but  we  might  all  have  more  of  it.  Here 
again  sincerity  is  necessary.  Let  us  make  our  senses  report 
accurately  to  us,  and  then  we  can  report  accurately  to  others. 
A  bit  of  untruth  blurs  everything  in  our  own  minds. 

EXERCISE  46  —  Dictation 
A   GOOD   OB.SERVER 

Study  the  following  paragraph,  and  be  able  to  write  it  from 
dictation.  Notice  particularly  the  ends  of  sentences,  the  commas 
to  mark  sentence  divisions,  the  apostrophe  to  show  possession, 
and  the  spelling  of  unfamiliar  words. 

I  knew  a  man  blind  from  his  youth  who  not  only  went  about  his 
own  neighborhood  without  a  guide,  turning  up  to  his  neighbor's 
gate  or  door  as  unerringly  as  if  he  had  the  best  of  eyes,  but  who 
would  go  many  miles  on  an  errand  to  a  new  part  of  the  country. 
He  seemed  to  carry  a  map  of  the  township  in  the  bottom  of  his 
feet,  a  most  minute  and  accurate  survey.  He  never  took  the  wrong 
road  and  he  knew  the  right  house  when  he  had  reached  it.  He  was  a 
miller  and  fuller,  and  ran  his  mill  at  night  while  his  sons  ran  it  by 
day.  He  never  made  a  mistake  with  his  customers'  bags  or  wool, 
knowing  each  man's  by  the  sense  of  touch.  .  .  .  Such  facts  show 
one  how  delicate  and  sensitive  a  man's  relation  to  outward  nature 
through  his  bodily  senses  may  become.  Heighten  it  a  little  more, 
and  he  could  forecast  the  weather  and  the  seasons  and  detect  hidden 
springs  and  minerals.  A  good  observer  has  something  of  this  delicacy 
and  quickness  of  perception. 

John  Burroughs,  A  Sharp  Lookout,  in 
"Signs  and  Seasons" 


Go  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  il  —  Oral 
DEFINITE   WORDS    FOR   DEFINITE   OBSERVATION 

Here  are  some  bits  of  careful  observation  by  John  Bur- 
roughs himself.  They  are  certainly  definite  and  unmistak- 
ably sincere.  Prepare  to  read  them  aloud  in  class.  If  you 
have  carefully  observed  anything  in  nature  that  some  of  your 
classmates  may  not  have  noticed,  you  may  tell  them  about  it. 

[Nature]  is  all  things  to  all  men ;  she  has  whole  truths,  half- 
truths,  and  quarter  truths,  if  not  still  smaller  fractions.  The  care- 
ful observer  finds  this  out  sooner  or  later.  Old  fox-hunters  will  tell 
you,  on  the  evidence  of  their  own  eyes,  that  there  is  a  black  fox 
and  a  silver-gray  fox,  two  species,  but  there  are  not ;  the  black  fox 
is  black  when  coming  toward  you  or  running  from  you,  and  silver- 
gray  at  point  blank  view,  when  the  eye  penetrates  the  fur ;  each 
separate  hair  is  gray  the  first  half  and  black  the  last.  This  is  a 
sample  of  Nature's  half-truths. 

A  Sharp  Lookout,  in  "  Signs  and  Seasons  " 

The  yellowbirds  [goldfinches]  are  just  getting  on  their  yellow 
coats.  I  saw  some  yesterday  that  had  a  smutty,  unwashed  look, 
because  of  the  new  yellow  shining  through  the  old  drab-colored 
webs  of  the  feathers.  These  birds  do  not  shed  their  feathers  in  the 
spring,  as  careless  observers  are  apt  to  think  they  do,  but  merely 
shed  the  outer  webs  of  their  feathers  and  quills,  which  peel  off  like 
a  glove  from  the  hand.  —  Spring  Jottings,  in  "  Riverby  " 

EXERCISE  48  —  Oral  and  Written 
WRITING  DEFINITELY   ABOUT  ACCURATE  OBSERVATIONS 

Examine  a  large  leaf  bud,  preferably  horse-chestnut,  hickory, 
or  buckeye,  folded  up  for  the  winter.  Describe  accurately 
what  you  see  —  forms,  sizes,  colors,  textures,  number  of  lay- 
ers, numbers  of  parts.  Where  are  the  leaves  ?  Why  are  they 
so  wrapped  up  .?  Is  there  any  plan  followed  in  the  arrange- 
ment in  buds  from  the  same  kind  of  tree  .?    Pull  the  JDuds 


DEFINITENESS  6i 

apart,  and  cut  them  in  cross  sections  and  lengthwise,  that  you 
may  see.  Use  the  most  definite  words  possible  in  describing 
every  part,  and  follow  some  plan  in  telling  about  them  — 
either  from  the  outside  in  or  from  the  inside  out, 

EXERCISE  49  —  Dictation 
DEFINITE   OBSERVATION   OF   COLOR 

Study  the  following  paragraph  and  be  able  to  write  it 
from  dictation.  Notice  the  semicolons  separating  what  might 
be  written  as  distinct  sentences.  Notice  the  descriptions 
of  color. 

There  is  one  redness  in  the  east  in  the  morning  that  means 
storm,  another  that  means  wind.  The  former  is  broad,  deep,  and 
angry ;  the  clouds  look  like  a  huge  bed  of  burning  coals  just  raked 
open ;  the  latter  is  softer,  more  vapory,  and  more  widely  extended. 
Just  at  the  point  where  the  sun  is  going  to  rise,  and  some  minutes 
in  advance  of  his  coming,  there  sometimes  rises  straight  upward  a 
rosy  column ;  it  is  like  a  shaft  of  deeply  dyed  vapor,  blending  with 
and  yet  partly  separated  from  the  clouds,  and  the  base  of  which 
presently  comes  to  glow  like  the  sun  itself.  The  day  that  follows 
is  pretty  certain  to  be  very  windy.  At  other  times  the  under  sides 
of  the  eastern  clouds  are  all  turned  to  pink  or  rose-colored  wool ; 
the  transformation  extends  until  nearly  the. whole  sky  flushes,  even 
the  west  glowing  slightly ;  the  sign  is  always  to  be  interpreted  as 
,       meaning  fair  weather. 

JoHX  Burroughs,  A  Sharp  Lookout, 
in  "  Signs  and  Seasons  " 

EXERCISE  50  —  Oral 

DEFINITE   COLOR-WORDS 

You  have  probably  noticed  that  John  Burroughs  has  a  keen 
eye  for  color  and  definite  words  for  it  too.  Find  all  the  words 
or  expressions  showing    color  in  the    selections   from    his 


62  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

writings  ;  also  in  those  from  Stevenson  given  in  this  chapter. 
Notice  also  the  color  words  in  the  following : 

It  was  late  August.  All  the  tall  grass  and  wild  oats  and  barley, 
over  lift,  level,  and  hollow,  were  ripe  yellow  or  warm  brown,  —  a 
golden  mantle  over  the  golden  soil.  There  were  but  two  colors  in 
the  simple  broad  picture,  —  clear,  deep,  scintillating  blue  in  the  sky, 
melting  blue  in  the  mountains,  and  all  the  earth  a  golden  surging 
sea.  —  Theodore  Wixthrop,  "  John  Brent  " 

The  dew  was  spread  over  the  grass  like  a  veil  of  silver  gossamer, 
spangled  with  crystals. 

A  vine,  heavy  with  great  clusters  of  yellow  grapes,  was  festooned 
upon  the  northern  wall. 

On  Thursday,  as  he  approached  the  castle,  the  last  fires  of  sun- 
set were  burning  in  the  sky  behind  it  —  the  long,  irregular  mass  of 
buildings  stood  out  in  varying  shades  of  blue  against  varying,  dying 
shades  of  red:  thegrey  stone,  dark,  velvety  indigo  ;  the  pink  stucco, 
pink  still,  but  with  a  transparent  blue  penumbra  over  it ;  the  white 
marble,  palely,  scintillantly  amethystine. 

Hexrv  Harlaxd,  "The  Cardinal's  Snuff-Box" 

EXERCISE  51  —  Oral  or  Written 
DESCRIBING  A   SCENE   FULL  OF   COLOR 

Try  again  a  description  of  an  outdoor  scene,  giving  special 
attention  to  color.  Do  not  think  that  the  only  colors  worth 
mentioning  are  the  brilliant  reds  and  yellows  of  early  fall. 
Before  you  write,  try  to  see  some  actual  scene  that  is  worth 
describing ;  either  city  or  country  has  many  a  one.  Do  not 
exaggerate,  but  name  all  the  colors  you  can,  even  if  the  result 
is  a  rather  stiff  composition.  Of  course,  however,  you  should 
make  your  sentences  as  easy  and  natural  as  possible.  The 
following  theme  uses  many  color  words,  though  in  a  some- 
what awkward  way. 


DEFINITENESS  63 

A   THANKSGIVING    LANDSCAPE 

At  my  left  is  a  field  of  corn.  Next  to  me  it  is  in  shocks,  and 
farther  away  it  is  standing.  Where  it  is  close,  it  is  a  golden  yellow, 
and  scattered  over  the  ground  are  large,  orange-colored  pumpkins. 
Farther  back  the  corn  is  a  misty,  warm-looking  brown. 

At  my  right  is  a  long  meadow  of  tall  coarse  grass,  which  has  a 
very  odd  color  with  the  sun  shining  on  it.  Beyond  this  is  a  dark 
leafless  wood.  It  is  black  at  first,  but  behind  the  first  few  trees 
there  is  a  misty  raven-blue  color.  Above  this  is  a  sky  of  light 
lavender  that  grows  into  a  dark  gray.  The  gray  stops  abruptly, 
and  there  is  a  light  blue,  which,  where  it  mingles  with  the  red, 
looks  a  light  green. 

In  front  of  me  is  a  long  wide  strip  of  grass  that  is  cut  short. 
Some  distance  from  the  ground  I  see  the  sun,  a  great  fiery  ball, 
half-hidden  by  a  dark  cloud.  Only  the  lower  half  is  visible,  and  it 
sends  its  golden  rays  downward.  This  dark  cloud  grows  quickly 
lighter  above,  fading  from  gray  to  white,  from  white  into  blue,  and 
from  that  into  green.  The  green  ends  suddenly,  and  there  is  a  rosy 
red  that  grows  into  fainter  color,  and  at  last  into  a  dainty,  shell  pink. 


EXERCISE  52  —  Written 

COLOR-WORDS    IN    DESCRIPTION   OF   PEOPLE 

After  studying  the  following  descriptions,  write  a  similar 
one  of  some  child  whose  coloring  of  person  and  dress  is 
especially  pleasing.  Do  not  say  merely  that  she  has  golden 
hair  and  blue  eyes,  for  instance,  but  give  a  definite  picture  of 
that  hair  and  eyes.  Notice  how  the  brown  hair  in  these  two 
pictures  of  Henry  Harland's  is  individualized. 

She  was  d  young  woman,  tall,  slender,  in  a  white  frock,  with  a 
white  cloak,  an  indescribable  complexity  of  soft  lace  and  airy  ruffles, 
around  her  shoulders.  She  wore  no  hat.  Her  hair,  brown  and 
warm  in  shadow,  sparkled,  where  it  caught  the  light,  in  a  kind  of 
crinkly  iridescence,  like  threads  of  glass. 


64  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

She  was  dressed  in  white  as  always  —  a  frock  of  I  know  not 
what  supple  fabric,  that  looked  as  if  you  might  have  passed  it 
through  your  ring,  and  fell  in  multitudes  of  small  soft  creases. 
Two  big  red  roses  dropped  from  her  bodice.  She  wore  a  garden 
hat  of  white  straw,  with  a  big  daring,  rose-red  bow,  under  which 
the  dense  meshes  of  her  hair,  warmly  dark,  dimly  bright,  shimmered 
in  a  blur  of  brownish  gold.  —  "  The  Cardinal's  Snuff-Box  " 


EXERCISE  53  -  Oral 

DEFINITE    SOUND-WORDS 

Not  only  our  eyes  but  our  ears  also  must  be  alert.  Study 
this  description  of  an  approaching  hurricane  in  the  West 
Indies,  noting  the  sound-words.  Read  with  your  imagina- 
tions awake  and  report  all  the  words  that  help  you  to  imagine 
sounds. 

The  din  was  terrific.  Cannon  balls  might  have  been  rattling 
against  the  stones  of  every  house,  and  to  this  was  added  a  roar  from 
the  reef  as  were  all  the  sounds  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  gathered  there. 
.  .  .  The  horse  fled  along  the  magnificent  avenue  of  royal  palms 
which  connected  the  east  and  west  ends  of  the  Island.  They  were 
bending  and  creaking  horribly,  the  masses  of  foliage  on  the  summits 
cowering  away  from  the  storm,  wrapping  themselves  about  in  a 
curiously  pitiful  manner ;  the  long  blade-like  leaves  seemed  striving 
each  to  protect  the  other. 

Through  the  ever  increasing  roar  of  the  storm,  above  the  creaking 
of  the  trees,  the  pounding  of  the  rain  on  the  earth  and  on  the  young 
cane,  Alexander  heard  a  continuous  piercing  note,  pitched  upon  one 
monotonous  key  like  the  rattle  of  the  girl's  castanets  he  had  heard 
on  St.  Thomas.  His  brain,  indifferent  now  to  the  din,  was  as  active 
as  ever,  and  he  soon  made  out  this  particular  noise  to  be  the  rattle 
of  millions  of  seeds  in  the  dry  pods  of  the  "  shaggy-shaggy,"  or 
"  giant,"  a  common  Island  tree,  which  had  not  a  leaf  at  this  season, 
nothing  but  countless  pods  as  dry  as  parchment  and  filled  with  seeds 
as  large  as  peas.    Not  for  a  second  did  this  castanet  accompaniment 


DEFINITENESS  65 

to  the  stupendous  bass  of  the  storm  cease,  and  Alexander,  whose 
imagination,  Uke  every  other  sense  of  him,  was  quickening  preter- 
naturally,  could  fancy  himself  surrounded  by  the  orchestra  of  hell, 
the  colossal  instruments  of  the  infernal  regions  performed  upon  by 
infuriate  Titans.  —  Gertrude  Athertox,  "The  Conqueror" 

Re-read  Stevenson's  account  of  his  night  out-of-doors  and 
name  the  words  used  to  describe  the  noises  of  the  wind. 

EXERCISE  54  —  Written 

FINDING   DEFINITE   SOUND-WORDS 

Read  the  following  "  Spring  Jottings,"  by  John  Burroughs, 
about  the  notes  of  birds  and  frogs.  Make  a  list  of  the  sound- 
words.  Add  to  these  all  the  different  words  or  expressions 
for  sounds  that  you  have  found  in  this  chapter. 

A  song-sparrow's  call  was  "  a  silver  loop  of  sound." 

The  long-drawn  call  of  the  high-hole  comes  up  from  the  fields, 
then  the  tender,  rapid  trill  of  the  bush  or  russet  sparrow,  then  the 
piercing  note  of  the  meadow-lark,  a  flying  shaft  of  sound. 

In  the  trees  the  crow  blackbirds  cackled  and  jangled. 

The  sun  is  down,  the  robins  pipe  and  call,  and  as  the  dusk 
comes  on  they  indulge  in  their  loud  chiding  note  or  scream, 
whether  in  anger  or  in  fun  I  never  can  tell.  Up  the  road  in  the 
distance  the  multitudinous  voice  of  the  little  peepers  —  a  thicket  or 
screen  of  sound. 

These  days  the  song  of  the  toad  —  tr-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r 
—  is  heard  in  the  land.  ...  It  is  a  kind  of  gossamer  of  sound 
drifting  in  the  air. 

EXERCISE  55  —  Written 
USING   DEFINITE   SOUND-WORDS 

Write  on  the  topic  "Awake  in  the  Night."  Your  scene 
may  be  city  or  country,  out-doors  or  in.  Describe  especially 
the  noises  you  hear.    Or,  if  you  choose,  you  may  describe  any 


66  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

noisy  scene.  The  following  themes  contain  some  good  sound- 
words  and  some  good  details.  What  are  they  ?  Underline 
all  the  words  in  your  theme  that  express  sound. 

a.  As  I  crawl  into  my  bed,  I  hear  the  wind  whistling  and  scurry- 
ing around  the  corner  of  the  house.  Now  I  hear  the  long-drawn-out 
bawl  of  a  cow.  Everything  is  quieter  at  this  moment  and  I  think 
I  can  go  to  sleep ;  but  I  cannot,  for  the  shrill  whistle  of  the  inter- 
urban  car  is  blowing.  The  wind  gradually  ceases  to  howl  and 
whistle,  but  still  keeps  up  a  rising  and  sinking  noise.  Now  I  hear 
the  pitter-patter  of  rain  drops.  Then  the  pitter-patter  turns  into 
piercing  noises,  and  from  the  street-light  I  see  that  the  whole  win- 
dow pane  is  covered  with  drops.  I  watch  one  little  drop  run  along 
till  it  falls  in  line  with  another  and  they  roll  down  most  of  the  pane 
together.  When  they  are  nearly  to  the  bottom,  they  run  into  each 
other,  and  then  I  hear  a  drip,  drip,  drip ;  for  several  of  the  bubbles 
have  reached  the  bottom  of  the  pane.  The  wind  has  begun  howl- 
ing and  shrieking  and  I  guess  it  keeps  on  this  way  the  rest  of  the 
night  after  I  finally  go  to  sleep. 

d.  While  I  look  out  on  a  noisy  city  a  general  rumble  and  roaring 
sound  pervades  the  air,  through  which  may  be  heard  several  more 
distinct  noises.  The  large  wagons  and  trucks  rattle  along  as  they 
bump  over  the  rough  pavement.  Automobiles,  slowing  down  at  the 
crossing,  make  a  chug-chug-chug  gradually  growing  faster.  The 
policeman  whistles  shrilly  once  or  twice  every  now  and  then,  and 
the  street  cars  ring  an  echoing  ding,  ding,  ding-ding.  Overhead  the 
elevated  trains  rumble  and  roar.  A  continual  buzz  and  the  clashing 
of  dishes  come  from  the  dining-room  across  the  hall. 

EXERCISE  56  -  Oral 
DEFINITE   WORDS    FOR   ODORS 

Describe  the  appetizing  odors  in  the  kitchen  before 
Thanksgiving  dinner,  the  disagreeable  odors  in  a  crowded 
street  car  on  a  rainy  day ;  or  describe,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  a  very  hungry  street  urchin,  the  odors  outside  a 
baker's  shop. 


DEFINITENESS  6-] 

EXERCISE  57  —  Written  and  Oral 
DEFINITE   WORDS   FOR  TEXTURE 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  words  or  phrases  that  occur  to 
you,  describing  the  texture  or  feeling  of  different  materials. 
Notice  the  description  of  a  dress  fabric  in  Exercise  52.  To 
what  substances  would  you  apply  each  of  the  following  terms  : 
supple,  brittle,  fuzzy,  adhesive,  flimsy,  filmy,  gelatinous, 
mushy,   ductile,  plastic,   slimy,   corrugated  f 

EXERCISE  58  —  Written 
WRITING   A    DEFINITE   DESCRIPTION 

Write  the  best  composition  possible  to  you,  on  the  topic 
"Out-of-doors  at  Night";  but  choose  some  more  definite 
point  of  view  and  time  and  place  and  make  a  title  to  fit.  Use 
all  your  senses  and  the  most  definite  words  that  you  possess. 
Be  sincere. 

EXERCISE  59 
ACCURATE  USE   OF   GET 

The  verb  get  is  overworked.  Avoid  using  it,  with  or  with- 
out have  or  had,  to  express  mere  possession,  as  "  I  've  got  an 
apple."  It  has  a  notion  of  activity  or  effort,  always  ;  and  is 
properly  used  in  many  idiomatic  expressions,^  —  that  is,  ex- 
pressions that  have  grown  up  in  our  language,  —  such  as  get 
ready,  get  aboard,  get  in,  get  behind,  get  on  luith,  get  out  of, 
etc.  It  should  never  be  used  in  the  sense  of  "be  allowed" 
or  "have  a  chance,"  as  "  I  didn't  get  to  go."  Equally  in- 
correct is  the  omission  of  get  (come,  go,  etc.)  in  such  expres- 
sions as  "'  I  zmnt  in,"  instead  of  "  I  want  to  get  in,"  etc. 

1  See  list  in  Century  Dictionary-  under  Ge/,  II 


68  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

The  following  specimen  of  the  uses  of  get,  transitive  and 
intransitive,  is  given  in  the  Centur)'  Dictionarw  Substitute 
other  words  for  get  or  got  wherever  }-ou  can  do  so  without 
changing  the  sense. 

I  got  on  horseback  within  ten  minutes  after  I  gif  your  letter. 
When  I  got  to  Canterbury,  I  got  a  chaise  for  town  :  but  I  got  wet 
through  before  1  got  to  Canterbury ;  and  I  have  got  such  a  cold  as 
I  shall  not  be  able  to  get  rid  of  in  a  hurry.  I  got  to  the  Treasury 
about  noon,  but  first  of  all  I  got  shaved  and  dressed.  I  soon  got 
into  the  secret  of  getting  a  memorial  before  the  board,  but  I  could 
not  get  an  answer  then  ;  however,  I  got  intelligence  from  the  mes- 
senger that  I  should  likely  get  one  the  next  morning.  As  soon  as 
I  got  back  to  my  inn,  I  got  supper  and  got  to  bed.  It  was  not  long 
before  I  got  to  sleep.  When  I  got  up  in  the  morning  I  got  my 
breakfast,  and  then  I  got  myself  dressed  that  I  might  get  out  in 
time  to  get  an  answer  to  my  memorial.  As  soon  as  I  got  it,  I  got 
into  the  chaise,  and  got  to  Canterbury  by  three,  and  about  tea-time 
\  got  home.    I  h^\c  got  nothing  for  you,  and  so  adieu. 

r.  Withers,  "  Aristarchus  " 

EXERCISE  60  —  Oral 

DEFINITE   WORDS   OF   MOTION 

Study  this  selection  for  the  words  calling  up  pictures  of 
motion.  Notice  that  lively  motions  and  sounds  frequently 
belong  together.    Mnd  the  words  of  motion  in  Exercise  53. 

Suddenly  his  horse,  in  spite  of  the  wall  of  wind  at  his  back,  stood 
on  his  hind  legs,  then  swerved  so  fiercely  that  his  rider  was  all  but 
unseated.  A  palm  had  literally  leaped  from  the  earth,  sprawled 
across  the  road  not  a  foot  in  front  of  the  horse.  The  terrified  brute 
tore  across  the  cane-field,  and  Alexander  made  no  attempt  to  stop 
him,  for,  although  the  rain  was  now  falling  as  though  the  sea  had 
come  in  on  the  back  of  the  high  wind,  he  believed  himself  to  be 
on  the  Stevens  plantation.  The  negro  village  was  not  yet  deserted, 
and  he  rode  to  the  west  side  of  the  mill  and  shouted  his  warning 
to  the  blacks  crouching  there.  .  .  . 


DEFINITENESS  -  69 

At  last  he  was  in  the  cane-fields  of  his  destination,  and  the  horse, 
as  if  in  communication  with  that  ardent  brain  so  close  to  his  own, 
suddenly  accelerated  his  already  mercurial  pace,  until  it  seemed  to 
Alexander  that  he  gathered  up  his  legs  and  darted  like  an  inflated 
swallow  straight  through  crashing  avenues  and  flying  huts  to  the 
stable  door.  —  Gertrude  Atherton,  "  The  Conqueror  " 

EXERCISE  61  —  Written 
USING   DEFINITE   WORDS   OF   MOTION 

Write  on  the  topic  "  The  Livehest  Scene  I  Ever  Saw." 
Let  this  be  a  picture  rather  than  a  story,  though  full  of  sound 
and  motion.  Choose  a  definite  point  of  view.  The  scene 
may  be  a  busy  street  corner,  the  playground  at  recess,  a 
fire,  the  circus-grounds,  or  anything  you  choose.  Read  the 
following  theme  : 

About  noon  the  men  began  coming  from  the  field.  The  old 
horses,  with  their  harness  swinging  and  jingling,  came  trotting  and 
running  down  the  beaten  path.  They  crowded  against  each  other 
and  after  fighting  awhile,  ducked  their  heads  in  the  water  tank 
while  the  men  hurried  to  open  the  gates  and  unrein  them.  From 
the  pastures  other  horses  came  galloping  to  get  their  feed,  thunder- 
ing over  the  platform  of  the  scales  with  a  roaring  noise.  All  the 
men  were  in  a  hurry,  because  they  were  eager  to  get  to  the  table. 
Some  put  hay  in  the  mangers,  while  others  rushed  around  with 
baskets,  throwing  in  the  corn.  The  horses  pawed  and  snorted  and 
made  a  great  fuss  over  the  feed.  When  all  was  done,  one  man 
hollowed,  "  I  '11  beat  you  all  to  the  house." 

Then  the  race  began,  all  shoving,  running,  and  shouting,  with 
the  dogs  scrambling  and  leaping  in  front  of  the  whole  crowd. 
Some  of  the  men  jumped  over  the  low  gate  while  others  pushed 
through,  ran  to  the  tub,  and  dashed  their  heads  in  and  out,  leaving 
most  of  the  dirt  on  their  faces.  One  man  who  seemed  to  be  some- 
what absent-minded  grabbed  a  little  boy  and  half  drowned  him  in 
the  dirty  soap-suds.  "  Lay  hold  o'  him  !  "  cried  the  crowd.  Soon 
an  angry  mob  rushed  to  him  and  marched  him  off  out  of  my  sight. 


70  FIRST  15()()K  OF  COMPOSFFION 

I  thought  they  would  be  silent  for  a  moment,  but  a  sudden  ding- 
dong  of  the  bell  brought  them  dashing  toward  the  door,  pushing 
against  it  so  hard  that  I  thought  it  would  come  off  the  hinges. 
They  slid  over  the  benches  and  finally  found  suitable  places.  They 
began  eating  very  greedily,  and  their  loud  jabbering  broke  the 
stillness  of  the  house.  "  Silence  !  "  roared  the  man  at  the  end  of 
the  table.  "There  is  entirely  too  much  noise."  The  loud  talk 
dropped  to  a  low  murmur. 

If  you  have  been  reall)-  thinking  as  you  have  done  the 
tasks  assigned,  you  have  discovered  that  people  who  write 
good  descriptions  are  not  content  with  vague,  general,  or 
worn-out  words,  like  pretty,  come,  go.  Vague,  indefinite 
words  are  like  the  Indian's  blanket,  fitting  everything  be- 
cause they  really  fit  nothing.  The  words  of  the  masters,  on 
the  contrar)^  fit  so  perfectly  that  they  seem  more  like  the 
body  of  the  thought  than  even  perfect-tailor-made  clothes. 
When  Hn,-ant  says  of  the  waterfowl  that  its  "wings  have 
fanned  at  that  far  height  the  cold,  thin  atmosphere,"  and 
Van  Dyke  speaks  of  the  kinglet  "fluttering  lightly  on  the 
wind,"  what  do  w-e  know-  of  the  size  of  the  two  birds  } 

EXERCISE  62  —  Written 
DEFINITE  WORDS   INSTEAD   OF   GENERAL  TERMS 
For  each  of  the  following  general  terms  make  a  list  of 
definite  words  :  come  or  go,  pretty,  good,  person,  workman. 

EXERCISE  63  —  Written 

DEFINITE   MEANINGS  OF  COMMON   WORDS 

The  chief  danger  of  slang  is  its  convenience.    Slang  words 

are  blanket  words,  ver}'  easily  put  on.    We  use  them  instead 

of  taking  the  trouble  to  be  definite  ;  and  so  a  clever  bit  of 

slang  steals  our  vocabularies. 


DEFINITENESS 


71 


Some  words  not  slang  are  almost  as  disreputable.  Look 
up  the  meanings  of  the  following  words  and  use  each  cor- 
rectly in  one  sentence  for  each  of  its  meanings.  Make 
good  sentences  that  will  bring  out  the  meaning  of  the 
words  :  awful,  nice,  JioTrid,  grand,  sweet,  fix,  mean,  fine, 
splendid.  Substitute  more  definite  or  more  appropriate 
words  for  these  in  the  following  sentences,  which  you  are 
likely  to  use  or  to  hear : 

1.  He  had  an  atuful  cold. 

2.  I  had  a  horrid  time  at  the  party. 

3.  Your  new  hat  is  sweet. 

4.  She  is  a  nice  girl. 

5.  Let  meyf.r  your  hair-ribbon. 

6.  \?,xvWi^ jzist grand ? 

7.  We  've  had  dijine  time. 

8.  Her  singing  was  sptendid. 

9.  That  \?,  just  grand. 

10.  The  candy  is  y>/j'/^ra;/(/y  you 're  a  yf«^  cook. 

11.  That  examination  \V3&  fierce. 

12.  The  umpire's  decision  was  rotten. 

13.  This  speech  was  simply  ripping. 

14.  Is  n't  this  a  blooming  nuisance  ! 

15.  What  beastly  weather  ! 

EXERCISE  64  —  Oral  and  Written 

SYNONYMS 

If  two  words  meant  exactly  the  same  thing,  we  should  not 
need  both.  The  meanings  of  synonyms  overlap,  but  they 
always  differ  in  some  way.  Distinctions  in  thought  are  more 
difficult  to  grasp  than  those  in  seeing,  hearing,  touching, 
moving,  and  the  like.  Look  up  the  following  pairs  of  words 
and  use  each  word  in  a  sentence  to  bring  out  its  most  indi- 
vidual meaning  — the  meaning  most  different  from  that  of  the 


72 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


other  one  of  the  given  pair.  The  Standard  Dictionary  is  es- 
pecially helpful  in  a  study  of  synonyms.  Learn  to  spell  these 
words. 


courage 

fortitude 

height 

statui  e 

courage 

bravery 

abandon 

leave 

courage 

daring 

politeness 

courtesy 

bravery 

heroism 

lady 

woman 

awful 

terrible 

gentleman 

man 

terrible 

horrible 

enough 

sufficient 

EXERCISE  65  —  Oral 
A    STUDY   IN   ALL   FORMS   OF  DEFINITENESS 

As  a  review  of  all  that  you  have  learned  in  this  chapter, 
study  this  description.  Of  course  this  is  merely  an  excerpt  from 
a  long  story,  but  notice  that  each  paragraph  has  its  definite 
subject.  What  is  the  subject  of  each  ?  What  is  the  point  of 
view  for  each  ?  Make  lists  of  the  sound  words,  of  the  motion 
words,  of  other  phrases  particularly  suggestive  of  definite 
images.  What  details  especially  give  the  impression  of 
sincerity  .'' 

Legal  Row,  the  little  street  of  lawyers'  offices  back  of  the  square, 
might  have  been  a  byroad  in  old  Pompeii  for  all  the  life  that  showed 
along  its  short  and  simmering  length.  No  idlers  lay  under  the  water 
maples  and  the  red  oaks  in  the  square.  The  jail  baked  in  the  sun- 
light, silent  as  a  brick  tomb,  which  indeed  it  somewhat  resembled ; 
and  on  the  wide  portico  of  the  courthouse  a  loafer  dog  of  remote 
hound  antecedents  alternately  napped  and  roused  to  snap  at  the 
buzzing  flies.  The  door  of  the  clerk's  office  stood  agape  and  through 
the  opening  came  musty,  snuffy  smells  of  old  leather  and  dry-rotted 
deeds.  The  wide  hallway  that  ran  from  end  to  end  of  the  old  build- 
ing was  empty  and  echoed  like  a  cave  to  the  frequent  thump  of  the 
loafer  dog's  leg  joints  upon  the  planking. 

Indeed,  the  whole  place  had  but  a  single  occupant.  In  his  office 
back  of  the  circuit-court  room  Judge  Priest  was  tilted  back  in  a 


DEFINITENESS  73 

swivel  chair,  with  his  short,  plump  legs  propped  on  a  table  and  his 
pudgy  hands  locked  across  his  stomach,  which  gently  rose  and  fell 
with  his  breathing.  His  straw  hat  was  on  the  table,  and  in  a  corner 
leaned  his  inevitable  traveling  companion  in  summer  weather  —  a 
vast  and  cavernous  umbrella  of  a  pattern  that  is  probably  obsolete 
now,  an  unkempt  old  drab  slattern  of  an  umbrella  with  a  cracked 
wooden  handle  and  a  crippled  rib  that  dangled  away  from  its  fellows 
as  though  shamed  by  its  afflicted  state.  The  campaigning  had  been 
hard  on  the  old  judge.  The  Monday  before,  at  a  rally  at  Temple's 
Mills,  he  had  fainted,  and  this  day  he  had  n't  felt  equal  to  going  to 
Shady  Grove.  Instead  he  had  come  to  his  office  after  dinner  to 
write  some  letters  and  had  fallen  asleep.  He  slept  on  for  an  hour, 
a  picture  of  pink  and  cherubic  old  age,  with  little  headings  of  sweat 
popping  out  thickly  on  his  high  bald  head  and  a  gentle  little  snoring 
sound,  of  first  a  drone  and  then  a  whistle,  pouring  steadily  from  his 
pursed  lips. 

Outside  a  dry-fly  rasped  the  brooding  silence  up  and  down  with 
its  fret-saw  refrain.  In  the  open  spaces  the  little  heatwaves  danced 
like  so  many  stress  marks,  accenting  the  warmth  and  giving  empha- 
sis to  it ;  and  far  down  the  street,  which  ran  past  the  courthouse 
and  the  jail  and  melted  into  a  country  road  so  imperceptibly  that 
none  knew  exactly  where  the  street  left  off  and  the  road  began, 
there  appeared  a  straggling,  irregular  company  of  men  marching,  their 
shapes  more  than  half  hid  in  a  dust  column  of  their  own  raising. 
The  Massac  men  were  coming. 

I  believe  there  is  a  popular  conception  to  the  effect  that  an  on- 
coming mob  invariably  utters  a  certain  indescribable,  sinister,  mut- 
tering sound  that  is  peculiar  to  mobs.  For  all  I  know,  that  may  be 
true  of  some  mobs,  but  certain  it  was  that  this  mob  gave  vent  to 
no  such  sounds.  The  mob  came  on  steadily,  making  no  more  noise 
than  any  similar  group  of  seventy-five  or  eighty  men  tramping  over 
a  dusty  road  might  be  expected  to  make.   .   .   . 

Their  number  was  obscured  by  the  dust  their  feet  lifted.  It  was 
as  if  each  man  at  every  step  crushed  with  his  toes  a  puffball  that 
discharged  its  powdering  particles  upward  into  his  face.  Some  of 
them  carried  arms  openly  —  shotguns  and  rifles.  The  others 
showed  no  weapons,  but  had  them.  .  .  .  Not  one  was  masked 
or  carried  his  face  averted.    Nearly  all  were  grown  men  and  not 


74  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFHON 

one  was  under  twenty.  ...  A  certain  definite  purpose  showed  in 
their  gait.  It  showed  also  in  the  way  they  closed  up  and  became 
a  more  compact  formation  as  they  came  within  sight  of  the  trees 
fringing  the  square. 

Down  through  the  drowsing  town  edge  they  stepped,  giving 
alarm  only  to  the  chickens  that  scratched  languidly  where  scrub- 
oaks  cast  a  skimpy  shade  across  the  road,  but  as  they  reached  the 
town  line  they  passed  a  clutter  of  negro  cabins  clustering  about  a 
little  doggery.  A  negro  woman  stepped  to  a  door  and  saw  them. 
Distractedly,  fluttering  like  a  hen,  she  ran  into  the  bare,  grassless 
yard,  setting  up  a  hysterical  outcry.  A  negro  man  came  quickly 
from  the  cabin,  clapped  his  hand  over  her  mouth  and  dragged  her 
back  inside,  slamming  the  door  to  behind  him  with  a  kick  of  his 
bare  foot.  Unseen  hands  shut  the  other  cabin  doors  and  the  woman's 
half-smothered  cries  came  dimly  through  the  clapboarded  wall ;  but 
a  slim  black  darky  darted  southward  from  the  doggery,  worming 
his  way  under  a  broken,  snaggled  fence  and  keeping  the  straggling 
line  of  houses  and  stables  between  him  and  the  marchers.  This 
fleeing  figure  was  Jeff,  Judge  Priest's  negro  body-servant,  who 
had  a  most  amazing  faculty  for  always  being  wherever  things 
happened. 

Jeff  was  lithe  and  slim  and  he  could  run  fast.  He  ran  fast  now, 
snatching  off  his  hat  and  carrying  it  in  his  hand  —  the  surest  of  all 
signs  that  a  negro  is  traveling  at  his  top  gait.  A  good  eighth  of  a 
mile  in  advance  of  the  mob,  he  shot  in  at  the  back  door  of  the 
courthouse  and  flung  himself  into  his  employer's  room. 

"  Jedge !  Jedge!"  he  panted  tensely,  "Jedge  Priest,  please, 
suh,  wake  up  —  the  mobbers  is  comin  ' !  " 

Irvix  S.  Gobi;,  "Back  Home" 


EXERCISE  66  —  Written 
TEST  THEME 

Try  again  Exercise  58  or  P2xcrcise  61.  You  ma}-  use  the 
same  scene  or  a  different  one.  Put  into  this  composition  all 
that  you  have  learned  about  definiteness  and  sincerity. 


DEFINITENESS  75 

EXERCISE  67  —  Oral 

REVIEW   OF   DEFINITENESS 

Bring  to  class  three  good  questions  on  the  points  discussed 
in  this  chapter.  Ask  and  be  prepared  to  answer  these 
questions  in  class. 

As  you  go  on  with  other  work,  do  not  forget  to  be  definite 
in  subject,  in  details,  in  point  of  view,  and  in  words.  Gather 
in  new  words  as  you  would  put  money  in  the  bank,  capital 
for  the  future.  Do  not  think  that  you  have  mastered  a  new 
word  until  you  really  own  it  and  use  it.  Try  keeping  a  list 
of  your  newly-acquired  property  in  a  convenient  note-book ; 
enter  any  word  that  comes  to  you  in  your  study  of  any  lesson, 
your  reading,  or  your  listening.  Look  over  the  list  from  time 
to  time,  and  use  the  words  from  it  in  speaking  and  in  writing. 

EXERCISE  68  —  Dictation 

ACQUIRING   DEFINITE   WORDS 

Study  the  following  paragraph  and  prepare  to  write  it  from 
dictation.    Notice  the  commas  used  in  a  series  of  like  words. 

Why  then  do  we  hesitate  to  swell  our  words  to  meet  our  needs  ? 
It  is  a  nonsense  question.  There  is  no  reason.  We  are  simply 
lazy,  too  lazy  to  be  comfortable.  .  .  .  Like  the  bad  cook,  we  seize 
the  frying-pan  to  fry,  broil,  roast,  or  stew,  and  then  we  wonder  why 
all  our  dishes  taste  alike  while  in  the  next  house  the  food  is  appe- 
tizing. It  is  all  unnecessary.  Enlarge  the  vocabulary.  Let  any  one 
who  wants  to  see  himself  grow  resolve  to  adopt  two  new  words 
each  week.  It  will  not  be  long  before  the  endless  and  enchanting 
variety  of  the  world  will  begin  to  reflect  itself  in  his  speech,  and  in 
his  mind  as  well. 

George  Herbert  Palmer,  in 
"  Self-Cultivation  in  English  " 


'j^  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

RULES   AND   EXERCISES    IN    GOOD    FORM  ^ 

I.   Punctuation 

Rule  21.  Use  the  coviitia  to  separate  the  words  aii'd expres- 
sions of  a  seiies. 

Exercise  A 

Memorize  for  writing : 

Our  children  shall  behold  his  fame, 

The  kindly-earnest,  brave,  foreseeing  man, 

Sagacious,  patient,  dreading  praise,  not  blame, 
New  birth  of  our  new  soil,  the  first  American. 

Lowell,  "  Commemoration  Ode  " 

Note  i  .  A  series  —  more  than  two  —  of  short  sentences,  v^ry 
closely  connected  in  thought,  may  be  separated  by  commas  only. 

Exercise  B 

Study  the  following  selection,  explain  the  use  of  the  commas, 
and  be  ready  to  write  from  dictation.  Note  that  in  the  second  half 
of  the  stanza,  to  mark  a  somewhat  greater  pause  in  the  thought, 
the  semicolon  is  used  instead  of  the  comma. 

She  left  the  web,  she  left  the  loom, 
She  made  three  paces  thro'  the  room, 
She  saw  the  water-lily  bloom, 
She  saw  the  helmet  and  the  plume. 

She  look'd  down  to  Camelot. 
Out  flew  the  web,  and  floated  wide  ; 
The  mirror  crack'd  from  side  to  side ; 
"  The  curse  is  come  upon  me,"  cried 

The  Lady  of  Shalott. 

Tennyson,  "  The  Lady  of  Shalott " 

Note  2.  When  each  member  of  a  series  is  joined  to  the  rest  by 
and  or  or,  no  comma  is  used  unless  the  writer  wishes  to  emphasize 
each  item  of  the  series  separately. 

1  Continued  from  page  24. 


DEFINITENESS  yj 

Examples  :  Truth  and  honor  and  character  were  sacrificed  to  his  selfish 
ambition. 

Lest  he  should  swoon  and  tumble  and  be  found, 

[Enoch]  Crept  to  the  gate,  and  opened  it,  and  closed, 
As  lightly  as  a  sick  man's  chamber-door. 

Tennyson,  "  Enoch  Arden  " 

Note  3.  When  only  the  last  member  of  a  series  is  joined  to  the 
rest  by  and,  but,  or  or,  a  comma  is  used  before  the  and,  etc.,  unless 
the  last  two  members  are  more  closely  connected  than  the  others. 

Examples  :  He  darted  away  over  the  fence,  across  the  meadow,  through 
the  orchard  gate,  and  into  the  woods. 

We  had  for  dinner  turkey,  cranberry  sauce,  mashed  potatoes,  celery, 
tea,  bread  and  butter. 

Rule  22.  Use  the  hyphen  (a)  to  denote  the  division  of  a 
zvord,  especially  at  the  end  of  a  line,  and  {b)  to  join  the  parts 
of  many  compound  words. 

Note  i  .  In  dividing  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line,  never  divide  a 
syllable,  and  always  place  the  hyphen  at  the  end,  not  at  the  beginning 
of  a  line. 

Note  2.  Usage  regarding  the  hyphen  in  compound  words  is  not 
at  all  consistent.  We  write  greenhouse,  text-book,  and  class  nnvn.  In 
general,  use  the  hyphen  when  the  compound  is  unusual,  like 
clean-winged. 

Exercise  C 

Notice  besides  the  use  of  the  hyphen  in  this  selection  the  apos- 
trophe, the  question  marks,  and  the  commas.  Why  is  not  its 
written  with  an  apostrophe  ? 

The  old  rude-furnished  room 
Burst,  flower-like,  into  rosy  bloom  ; 
While  radiant  with  a  mimic  flame 
Outside  the  sparkling  drift  became,     . 
And  through  the  bare-boughed  lilac-tree 
Our  own  warm  hearth  seemed  blazing  free. 


78  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

Shut  in  from  all  the  world  without, 
We  sat  the  clean-winged  hearth  about, 
Content  to  let  the  north-wind  roar 
In  baffled  rage  at  pane  and  door, 
While  the  red  logs  before  us  beat 
The  frost-line  back  with  tropic  heat. 

What  matter  how  the  night  behaved  ? 
What  matter  how  the  north-wind  raved  ? 
Blow  high,  blow  low,  not  all  its  snow 
Could  quench  our  hearth-fire's  ruddy  glow. 

Whittier,  "  Snow-Bound  " 

Exercise  D 
Memorize  for  writing : 

There,  too,  our  elder  sister  plied 
Her  evening  task  the  stand  beside  ; 
A  full  rich  nature,  free  to  trust, 
Truthful  and  almost  sternly  just. 
Impulsive,  earnest,  prompt  to  act, 
And  make  her  generous  thought  a  fact, 
Keeping  with  many  a  light  disguise 
The  secret  of  self-sacrifice. 

WiiiTTiEK,  "  Snow-Bound" 

II.  Correct  Usage 

Exercise  E 

Use  is  and  7aas  only  with  a  .singular  noun  a.s  subject,  or  with  the 
pronoun  he,  she,  or  //.  T'ili  the  blanl^s  with  is  or  are,  icas  or  7c>ere. 
Read  aloud. 

1.  you  there  .■' 

2.  What you  doing .' 

3.  If  they here  I  should  be  happy. 

4.  Thoughts  of  a  picnic  in  June interrupting  my  work  to-day. 

5.  They coming,  but  the  trains late  to-day. 

6.  Where you  last  night  1 

7.  The  words  of  every  child clearly  audible. 

8.  Who you  ?    Where you  .'    What you  } 


DEFINITENESS  79 

9.  What those  cities  ? 

10.  In  what  part  of  the  United  States those  rivers  ? 

11.  There twenty  of  us. 

12.  Some happy,  some sad. 

13.  We waiting,  you late,  and  the  weather cold. 

14.  The  writing  of  all  the  children  in  all  the  grades improving. 


Exercise  F 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  appropriate  sub- 
jects. Notice  that,  although  there  throws  the  subject  after  the 
verb,  the  verb  must  be  plural  if  the  subject  is  plural.  Read  the 
sentences  aloud,  emphasizing  the  verbs.    Read  each  sentence  also 

as  a  question,  in   two  ways ;  for  example,  "  Are  there  any 

here  to-day  ?  "  and  "  Are  there  no here  to-day  ?  "    Sometimes 

you  will  have  to  use  not  instead  of  no. 

1.  There  are here  to-day. 

2.  There  ivere there. 

3.  There  are  no in  town. 

4.  There  are  a  few on  the  trees. 

5.  There  are in  Australia. 

6.  There  we^-e near  Jamestown. 

7.  There  7ve7-e in  the  colonies. 

8.  There  are at  the  pole. 

9.  There  seem  to  be to-night. 

10.  There  appear  to  be in  the  sky. 

11.  There  rvere listening. 

12.  There  are in  America. 

Exercise  G 

Fill  the  blanks  with  is  or  are,  was  or  zvere  : 

1.  No  one looking,  and  the  doors open. 

2.  How  many  of  you there  .'' 

3.  the  books  on  the  shelf  t 

4.  there  many  people  present  ? 

5.  there  any  one  present  who absent  yesterday  ? 

6.  The  compositions  of  each  pupil returned  at  the  end  of  the  term. 

7.  they  for  us  ? 


8o  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

8.  Where the  children  when  I  called  them  ? 

9.  There several  kinds  of  sugar-beets ;  and  they all  grown 

in  this  region. 

10.  there  two  or  three  blades  on  your  knife .' 

11.  there  any  people  in  the  elevator.'' 

12.  there  anybody  in  the  elevator? 

13.  there  five  more  weeks  of  school .'' 

14.  How  many there  in  the  jar.-' 

15.  there  deer  in  this  park  ? 

16.  The  proficiency  of  the  pupils remarkable. 


Exercise  H 

Read  aloud,  completing  the  sentences.  Emphasize  the  words 
in  italics. 

1.  Polly  and  /  are . 

2.  He  and  she . 

3.  BeUveen  you  and  iiic,  I  will  admit  that . 

4.  Mary  and  she  hare  often . 

5.  They  having  forgotten,  I  am  discouraged. 

6.  Have  you  heard  from  //tv  and  I.ucy  since  they ? 

7.  Won't  you  let  Jim  and  me .' 

8.  Mother  never  allows  Harry  and  me  to . 

9.  Have  you  ever  known  him  or  her  to  forget . 

10.  Did  they  bring  mother  and  me .' 

11.  Why  did  you  not  remind  him  and  us  to . 

12.  Uliom  did  you ? 

13.  The  child  whom  you  admire  is . 

14.  The  man  -whom  you  see  has . 

Exercise  I 

Some  pronouns  have  different  forms  for  subject  and  object.  Of 
these  pronouns  the  subject  forms  are  he,  she,  they,  I,  we,  and  who. 
These  forms  should  be  used  also  after  is,  are,  and  all  forms  of  the 
verb  to  be,  and  after  seetns  to  be,  etc. ;  that  is,  as  predicate  attributes, 
or  subject  complements,  representing  the  same  thing  as  the  sub- 
ject ;  for  example, "'  It  is  he.'''  They  should  also  be  used  absolutel}- ; 
as,  "  He  being  ill,  we  postponed  the  party  "  ;  "  They  having  refused 


DEFINITENESS  8i 

to  vote,  we  were  defeated  "  ;  or  in  apposition  with  any  of  these  —  a 
rare  use.    The  chief  difficulty  is  after  is,  arc,  etc. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  suitable  forms  from  the  list  above : 

1.  Who  are ?    May  and . 

2.  and had  quarreled. 

3.  being  tired, went  home. 

4.  .  having  become  tired,  lay  down  while went  on  to  the  top. 

6.  •  and have  been  friends  from  childhood. 

6.  and visited  where used  to  live. 

7.  Are  Helen  and coming  ? 

8.  Will and consent  ? 

Exercise  J 

Use  him,  her,  them,  me,  us,  and  whom  in  all  constructions  except 
those  indicating  possession  and  except  those  mentioned  in  the  last 
exercise.  What  are  those  uses  ?  These  forms  given  above  should 
always  be  used  as  objects  of  verbs  and  prepositions,  even  when 
joined  with  a  noun.  Say  "  We  girls  are  coming,"  but  "  Will  you 
let  us  girls  go  ?  "  Say  "  Mary  and  /  are  here,"  but  "  He  brought 
a  puppy  to  Mary  and  me."  If  in  doubt  about  the  correct  form, 
omit  the  noun  or  analyze  the  sentence. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  the  forms  above : 

1.  Listen  to shouting  for  the  president ! 

2.  Hear play  that  new  tune. 

3.  Lend your  brains,  please  ;  between  you  and ,  I  am  com- 
pletely puzzled. 

4.  Uncle  brought  presents  to and . 

5.  I  found  Lucy  and crying  in  the  street. 

6.  The  man I  saw  was  not  the  thief. 

7.  Did  you  find  the  boy  of I  spoke  ? 

8.  do  you  mean .'' 

9.  have  you  appointed  captain  ? 

10.  With are  you  going  ? 

11.  The  children he  befriended  have  never  forgotten . 

12.  That  monkey  caught  Jack  and by  the  hair. 

13.  The  knights  of you  read  were  very  brave. 

14.  There  were  only  ten they  did  not  invite. 

15.  What  will  you  do  for  Helen  and 1 


82 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


SUGGESTED   THEME   TOPICS 


1. 

Waiting  for  the  Train. 

25. 

2. 

Grandmother's  Garden. 

26. 

3. 

The  Nursery  at  Bedtime. 

27. 

4. 

When  Father  Comes  Home. 

28. 

5. 

Indoors  on  a  Rainy  Day. 

29. 

6. 

Outdoors  in  the  Rain. 

7. 

From  My  ^^'indo\v  at  Night. 

30. 

8. 

A  City  Street  on  a  Rainy 
Night. 

31. 

9. 

A  Canal  Boat. 

10. 

Buying  a  New  Hat. 

32. 

11. 

In  the  Greenhouse. 

33. 

12. 

Holly  for  Christmas. 

34. 

13. 

When  the  Train,  Boat,  or 

35, 

Stage  Comes  In. 

36. 

14. 

A  Cozy  Corner. 

37. 

15. 

A  Roomful  of  Books. 

38. 

16. 

After  the  First  Snow. 

39. 

17. 

The  Last  Leaf. 

40, 

18. 

A  Candy  Store  (outside  or 

41, 

inside). 

42, 

19. 

After  School. 

20. 

When  the  Train  Pulled  In. 

43. 

(He  came  or  he  did  not 

44. 

come.) 

45. 

21. 

The   Longest   Day  of   the 

46. 

Year. 

47, 

22. 

A  Dandelion. 

48, 

23. 

Through  the  Telescope. 

49, 

24. 

Through  the  Microscope. 

50, 

An  Indian  Chief. 

A  Fish  from  Our  Pond. 

How  a  Horse  Lies  Down. 

How  a  Baby  Learns  to  Walk. 

How  a  Telephone  is  Con- 
nected. 

Why  Cornstalks  Fall. 

A  Cornstalk ;  an  f^ar  of 
Wheat  (or  similar  sub- 
ject). 

A  Petrified  Shell. 

A  Relic  of  the  Past. 

A  \\'alnut  Tree. 

The  Leaf  of  a  Walnut  Tree. 

A  Walnut. 

\\'hy  Shavings  Curl. 

The  Fur  of  Our  Cat. 

A  Cat's  Paw. 

A  Horse's  Ear. 

How  an  Elephant  Walks. 

How  a  Robin  (or  other  bird) 
Moves. 

A  Wave. 

A  Snowflake. 

\\'ind  in  the  Wheat. 

One  Kind  of  Sumac. 

An  Airship. 

A  Walking  Cultivator. 

Curing  Tobacco. 

"  Sugaring  Off." 


CHAPTER   IV 

INTEREST 

From  the  point  of  view  of  ourselves,  sincerity  is  the  chief 
qiiahty  of  our  composition  ;  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
subject,  definiteness  is  probably  the  chief  quality  ;  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  hearer  or  reader,  interest  is  probably 
most  important.  To  be  sure,  sincerity  itself  is  necessar}'  to 
interest,  yet  sincerity  alone  will  not  give  it.  Two  other  quali- 
ties helpful  to  interest  have  already  been  considered  —  good 
form  and  definiteness  ;  but  these  are  not  enough.  In  this 
chapter  some  other  ways  of  being  interesting  are  to  be 
studied.  You  should  write  every  theme  with  some  possible 
reader  clearly  before  your  mind,  and  a  good  many  sug- 
gestions you  should  put  into  practice  with  the  distinct  pur- 
pose of  securing  and  holding  that  reader's  interest,  of  mak- 
ing your  thought  clear  to  him,  and  of  producing  the  desired 
effect  in  his  mind. 

A.  LETTERS 

Of  all  written  words,  those  in  letters  seem  most  directly 
addressed  to  a  reader.  Nowadays  there  is  scarcely  a  person 
who  does  not  at  some  time  write  a  letter  or  wish  to  write 
one ;  yet  it  is  said  that  the  art  of  letter-writing  is  dead.  This 
is  certainly  too  strong  a  statement,-  but  it  points  out  an  un- 
doubted fact  —  that  what  all  are  doing  somehow,  few  are 
doing:  well. 


84  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

I.  Friendly  Letters 

In  business  letters  one  tries  to  be  as  brief  and  concise  as 
possible  ;  his  aim  is  merely  to  have  himself  understood.  In 
social  letters,  on  the  other  hand,  one  wishes  not  only  to  make 
himself  understood,  but  also  to  make  the  reader  feel  as 
though  there  had  been  a  personal  talk  between  two  friends. 
One  friend  will  write  to  another  news  in  which  they  are  both 
interested,  will  write  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  his  feeling 
about  it,  his  opinion  concerning  it  all.  Remember  that  he 
must  be  definite,  especially  in  details,  point  of  view,  and  words. 

EXERCISE  69  -  Written 
A   LETTER  TO   A   FRIEND 

Your  best  friend  at  school  has  been  away  for  three  weeks 
on  a  visit.  Write  and  tell  him  what  is  going  on  at  school. 
Try  to  imagine  what  he  would  like  to  know.  Write  pretty 
much  as  you  would  talk. 

EXERCISE  70  —  Written 
A   LETTER   FOR   I'OLXT   OF   VIEW 

Write  to  an  uncle  or  to  your  grandfather  or  to  some  grown 
person  who  has  visited  in  your  home  and  tell  what  is  going 
on  at  school.  Write  what  would  interest  the  person  to  whom 
you  address  the  letter ;  your  relations  toward  him  definitely 
determine  your  point  of  view. 

A  social  letter  is,  in  a  way,  like  a  talk  with  a  friend.  But 
in  conversation  one  has  to  speak  quickly,  often  without  suf- 
ficient thought ;  in  letter-writing,  on  the  contrar}',  one  has 
time  to  plan  what  he  wishes  to  say  and  to  choose  just  the  right 


INTEREST  85 

words  to  express  his  meaning.    So  in  this  respect  a  social 
letter  is  like  one's  most  carefully  chosen  conversation. 

Here  is  a  task,  then,  for  a  writer :  to  send  his  greeting, 
his  best  self  through  a  letter,  to  be  jolly,  thoughtful,  sympa- 
thetic, as  the  case  may  require,  and  yet  to  write  nothing  that 
he  will  afterward  be  ashamed  of  or  regret  having  written, 

EXERCISE  71  —  Written  and  Oral 
SELECTING   AND   ARRANGING    MATERIAL   FOR  A   LETTER 

If  one  of  your  fellow  pupils  is  ill  or  has  moved  away  or  is 
off  on  a  visit,  choose  him  to  write  to.  Jot  down  all  the  things 
that  he  would  like  to  hear  about.  After  making  this  list, 
imagine  yourself  in  his  place  and  choose  only  those  items  that 
would  interest  you  most.  Try  to  arrange  these  so  that  you 
can  pass  naturally  from  one  to  the  next.  In  class  compare 
your  notes  and  select  the  best  ones. 

EXERCISE  72  —  Written 
PUTTING  PERSONALITY   INTO  A   LETTER 

Write  the  letter  planned  in  Exercise  7 1 .  Write  it  with  so 
much  of  yourself  in  the  expression  that  your  friend  without 
looking  at  the  signature  can  guess  who  the  writer  is. 

a.  General  rules  of  form.  All  that  is  said  in  Chapter  II 
about  paper  and  pen  and  ink  is  even  more  important  here 
than  there.  It  is  possible  that  a  merchant  may  understand 
and  correctly  fill  an  order  if  it  be  written  in  pencil  on  the 
cheapest  of  paper.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  friendship  may 
endure,  even  though  one  correspondent  or  both  may  neglect 
social  decencies  in  writing.  But  courtesies  and  conventions 
are  as  exacting  in  letter-writing  as  in  any  other  phase  of 
social  life. 


86  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

Let  your  stationery  be  good,  usually  plain  white,  of  medium 
weight,  and  unruled.  Use  black  ink.  Beware  what  is  unusual 
in  any  way.  Paper  for  social  letters  is  always  folded,  the 
page  measuring,  in  one  common  form,  about  5^-  inches  by  7  ; 
in  another,  about  5i-  by  S^.  Considerable  freedom  is  per- 
mitted in  the  order  in  which  the  pages  are  written;  but  by 
far  the  most  people  use,  and  all  should  use,  the  natural  order, 
beginning  with  the  fold  to  the  left  and  filling  the  four  pages 
in  succession  from  top  to  bottom. 

b.  Parts  of  a  friendly  letter.  The  requirements  of  form 
are  not  so  strict  in  friendly  correspondence  as  in  business  let- 
ters. The  formal  parts,  which  are  explained  on  pages  30-33, 
may  be  changed  in  many  ways,  but  only  for  good  reasons. 

In  ordinary  cases  the  heading  should  be  of  the  same  form 
as  in  business  letters  ;  but  when  written  to  a  person  to  whom 
the  facts  are  perfectly  well  known  (to  a  sister  who  is  away  at 
school,  for  instance)  the  heading  is  occasionally  changed  so 
that  fun  or  sentiment  may  creep  in.    One  might  write,  for 

example, 

Home  Sweet  Home, 
Saturday,  being  the 
fourth  day  since 
you  left  us. 

But  the  ordinaiy  heading  is  always  correct  and  in  good  taste. 

The  address,  unless  one  is  writing  the  social  letter  to  a 
stranger,  is  omitted.  If  used,  it  is  ordinarily  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  letter,  below  the  signature,  beginning  at  the  left- 
hand  margin.  For  an  illustration  see  the  end  of  the  first 
letter  on  page  96. 

The  salutation  may  be  merely  formal,  but  it  also  affords 
an  opportunity  for  endlessly  varied  expression  of  personal 
feeling,  whether  of  sincere  affection  or  of  sentimental  gush. 


INTEREST  87 

It  is  well  to  be  at  least  as  reserved  in  the  salutation  as  in 
speech.  Jl/y  dear  Mr.  Cojfnian  and  its  slightly  more  inti- 
mate form  Dear  Mr.  Cojfmaii  are  always  in  good  taste. 
From  these  forms  the  salutation  may  be  more  and  more 
cordial  as  far  as  warranted  by  genuine  sentiment.  Beyond 
this  there  comes  at  once  a  feeling  of  insincerity.  "  It  is  sin- 
cerity," wrote  James  Runciman,  "  that  attracts,  and  it  is  only 
by  sincerity  that  any  letter-writer  can  please  other  human 
creatures." 

The  tone  of  the  whole  letter,  a  kind  of  point  of  view, 
may  be  set  in  the  salutation,  — •  a  key  struck,  as  it  were,  with 
which  all  that  follows  must  be  in  harmony.  The  salutation 
in  a  letter  written  to  one's  chum  would  certainly  be  different 
from  that  in  a  letter  to  one's  grandfather.  Almost  any  ex- 
pression of  self  is  permissible  here,  but  note  that  it  is  not 
good  form  to  write  Frienei  JoJin.  Write  My  dear  Friend  or, 
much  better  still,  Dear  JoJin. 

Every  word  in  the  salutation  except  the  first  and  the  last 
is  begun  with  a  small  letter ;  as.  My  very  precious  Mother. 
The  salutation  is  usually  followed  by  a  comma,  sometimes  by 
a  comma  and  dash,  a  colon,  or  a  colon  and  dash.  Occa- 
sionally, in  very  informal  letters,  the  salutation  is  made  a  part 

of  the  body  of  the  letter ;  as, 

Deland,  Florida, 
March  6,  1900. 

Only  yesterday,  my  dear  Jim,  I  was  wishing  that  you  were  here,  so 
that  we  might  talk  over  our  plans  for  next  summer. 

And  the  salutation  on  page  91  is  so  evidently  a  matter  of 
form,  the  real  salutation  being  incorporated  in  the  first  line 
of  the  body  of  the  letter,  that  it  might  be  omitted  not  only 
without  loss  but  with  a  real  gain  in  sincerity. 


88  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  73  —  Written 
ArPROPRIATK  FORMS 
Write  the  heading  and  salutation  for  the  following  letters  : 

1.  To  mother  at  home. 

2.  To  a  sister. 

3.  To  one's  chum. 

4.  To  the  superintendent  of  schools. 

5.  A  first  letter  to  a  friend  whom  you  met  last  summer  on  your  vaca- 
tion trip. 

6.  The  seventh  letter  to  the  same  friend. 


It  is  in  the  body  of  the  friendly  letter,  however,  that  one 
finds  the  real  heart  and  soul,  for  which  all  the  preliminary 
form  has  prepared  us.  Let  the  beginning  of  the  body  show 
that  you  are  really  welcoming  the  chance  of  saying  to  your 
friend  just  what  you  feel.  This  would,  of  course,  preclude 
tedious  (and  usually  unconvincing)  apologies  and,  likewise, 
those  formal  introductions  so  often  ridiculed  and  still  so 
frequently  used  by  inexperienced  writers  :  "  Having  nothing 
else  to  do  after  dinner,  I  thought  I  would  write  you  a  letter." 
With  such  an  introduction,  which  certainly  does  not  flatter 
the  recipient,  the  writer  sticks  fast.  However  sincere  he  may 
be  in  the  body  of  his  letter,  a  writer  spoils  the  effect  —  in 
fact,  never  really  achieves  it  —  if  his  introduction  or  con- 
clusion is  stilted  or  long. 

If  one  has  an  apolog}-  for  not  having  written  earlier,  he 
miglit  usually  just  as  well  omit  it.  Let  him  make  up  for  his 
negligence  by  writing  a  good  letter.  If  it  must  be  expressed, 
let  it  be  slipped  somewhere  into  the  body  of  the  letter,  not 
made  a  prominent  feature  of  the  beginning.  The  busiest 
people  usually  reply  to  letters  most  promptly. 


INTEREST  89 


EXERCISE  7A  — Written 

INTERESTING  BEGINNINGS 

Write  the  heading,  salutation,  and  several  sentences  of 
five  letters.  By  these  fragments  try  to  show  your  feelings 
toward  the  people  addressed,  and  in  each  case  try  to  begin 
interestingly. 

EXERCISE  75 -Oral 

ATOLOGIES 

Tell  in  class  several  apologies  that  you  have  received  or 
expressed  in  letters  for  delay  in  writing  a  friendly  letter. 
Which  seem  sincere  ?  Which  seem  so  important  that  you 
would  be  glad  to  find  them  in  the  beginning  of  a  letter  to 
you  ?  Can  you  suggest  a  better  way  of  giving  this  necessary 
information  than  through  an  introductory  apology  ? 


In  the  actual  writing  one  must  remember  always  that  al- 
though a  friendly  letter  may  recount  news,  its  real  purpose 
is  to  say  through  its  whole  length  that  you  are  thinking  of 
your  friend  and  wish  to  show  it.  Consequently,  express  your- 
self ;  tell  what  you  think  of  the  news  you  relate,  what  you 
believe,  what  you  hope,  and,  indirectly,  what  you  are.  Read 
the  letters  of  interesting  people  —  Stevenson,  Lamb,  Lowell, 
Lanier,  Louisa  M.  Alcott,  among  the  famous  ones  —  and  see 
how  they  have  written  themselves  into  the  lines.  Following 
are  letters  that  may  prove  suggestive. 

a.  A  letter  from  Alice  Langdon  in  Boston,  to  her  sister, 
who  is  away  from  home  traveling. 


90  FIRST  BOOK  Ol>"  COMPOSITION 

1495  Beacon  Street, 

Boston,  Massachusetts, 
May  5,  191 2. 
Dearest  "  Gummidge," 

We  are  having  real  June  weather  to-day 
—  the  first  even  mildly  warm  day  we  have  had  this  spring ;  and  it 
has  made  the  thought  of  our  quiet  little  place  in  Vermont  a  little 
more  possible.  I  should  n't  wonder  if  Mr.  Evans  is  spading  up  the 
garden  to-day  ! 

Dorothy  and  I  went  to  Franklin  Park  yesterday  in  an  open  car 
and  lay  on  the  ground  under  a  tree,  whence  we  could  overlook  a 
sweeping  green  valley  dotted  with  babies  and  an  occasional  search- 
ing nursemaid.  The  air  was  perfect  —  a  tiny,  friendly  breeze ;  the 
buds  of  the  trees  are  just  beginning  to  look  hazy,  and  the  sun  made 
us  most  "  comfy  "  and  dreamy. 

We  got  home  about  five  to  find  Mrs.  Martin  and  Betty,  who  had 
dropped  in  to  tea.  I  was  delighted  to  find  that  they  had  brought 
"  Rags,"  who  eventually  added  greatly  to  our  party.  We  fed  him 
on  the  sad  relics  of  my  birthday  cake,  over  which  he  became  quite 
hysterical  and  did  all  his  tricks  as  if  quite  conscious  of  our  admira- 
tion. We  folks  had  marmalade  sandwiches  —  mother's  own  mar- 
malade,—  nut-bread,  and  tea.  Mrs.  Martin  especially  sent  love  to 
you.  They  have  heard  nothing  more  of  the  burglar,  though  it 
proved  he  did  take  some  of  their  things. 

This  evening  Dorothy  has  gone  out  to  see  Mary  Gordon,  and 
mother  is  reading.  She  has  well  earned  her  recreation,  for  she  has 
to  her  credit  this  day  the  finishing  of  my  pink  plaid,  her  black  silk 
waist,  and  her  morning  sacque  !  My  plaid  I  feel  is  a  gift  from  the 
skies,  for  it  was  a  remnant  of  three  yards  and  a  half,  which  had 
been  given  up  as  useless.  One  day  I  found  about  a  yard  of  plain 
pink  and  planned  the  dress,  which  mother  and  Dorothy  executed. 
It  is  so  successful  that  Jane  plans  one  just  like  it !  But  enough  of 
clothes. 

Last  Thursday,  though  it  was  a  nasty,  rainy  day,  we  went  to  the 
museum  to  see  an  exhibition  of  John  La  Farge's  paintings.  He 
did  decorating  and  stained-glass  windows  mainly,  but  also  tried 
his  hand  at  everything  else.  1  did  n't  care  for  the  other  things  so 
much  —  some  way  they  did  n't  appeal  to  me,  —  but  the  stained-glass 


INTEREST 


91 


windows  and  some  Samoan  water-colors  did.  There  were  other 
pictures  on  exhibition,  too:  Alexander's  "Pot  of  Basil"  —  you 
know  it  —  which  was  wonderfully  more  beautiful  than  the  repro- 
ductions; some  Whistler's  —  "The  Little  Rose  of  Lyme  Regis," 
which  was  very  sweet ;  and  lots  of  others  I  can't  enumerate. 

Then  we  went  to  the  Japanese  Garden,  an  adorable  place,  laid 
out  in  walks  and  pools,  with  real  acacias  in  bloom,  and  bamboos 
and  coontie  palms  in  the  corner.  We  sat  down  impudently  on 
some  stone  steps  leading  up  to  a  most  gruesome-looking  god  with 
six  arms  and  three  eyes !  (And  who  is  the  god  who  sits  enthroned 
on  a  lotus  blossom?)  There  were  Japanese  screens  and  wonderful 
carved  panels  lining  the  sides  of  the  garden,  and  litde  goldfish 
swimming  about  in  the  pools.  It  seemed  queer  to  come  out  from 
there  into  a  raw,  misty,  muddy  street,  where  people  were  all  bob- 
bing about  under  unpicturesque  umbrellas. 

It's  time  I  stopped,  or  poor  mother  won't  have  a  thing  left  to 
write  you.    I  reserve  the  right,  though,  to  tell  you  that  you  still 


have  the  devoted  love  of 


Your 


Little  Sister. 


b.  A  letter  from  Albert  Ball  to  Joe  Bellamy,  who  is  in  a  hos- 
pital recovering  from  an  injury  received  in  a  football  game.^ 

Clinton,  Iowa, 

T^        T  November  27,  IQ12. 

Dear  joe,  — 

Well,  old  scout,  how  are  you  doing  this  week  ?  Better, 
I  hope  ;  and  the  whole  school  is  hoping  you  '11  beat  the  doctors  by 
getting  home  for  Christmas.  Even  the  girls  are  talking  about  you ; 
it 's  almost  worth  a  crack  on  the  head  to  have  everybody  so  inter- 
ested in  a  fellow.  So  cheer  up,  my  son ;  if  the  tap  on  your  nut  and 
the  chloroform  could  n't  finish  you,  you  're  good  to  be  hanged  yet. 
But  you  really  ought  to  know  about  the  doings  in  the  High 
School ;  and  if  I  did  n't  believe  that  Molly  Farnham  was  writing 
regularly  to  you  (through  your  sister)  I  might  hope  you  'd  read  what 
my  genius  can  concoct  in  the  way  of  clear,  concise,  correct,  canned 
composition.    Nevertheless,  there  's  just  one  event  in  this  little  old 

1  For  this  letter  the  authors  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Samuel  M.  North,  of  Baltimore. 


92  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSlTlOiN 

town  that  has  got  past  Molly  dear ;  so  I  am  going  to  throw  it  right 
at  you.  Brace  up  now  ;  send  the  pretty  nurse-lady  away,  for  I  want 
the  whole  remainder  of  what  was  once  your  mind. 

Well,  this  story  begins  with  a  parrot  —  to  wit,  my  parrot,  which 
bird  you  have  never  seen,  since  Uncle  Jim  brought  him  up  from 
Santa  Lucia  only  two  weeks  ago.  We  knew  he  could  say  a  few 
things,  for  the  dealer  Uncle  Jim  bought  him  of  said  the  bird  had 
been  owned  by  an  English  merchant  who  had  taught  him  to 
speak,  but  he  never  would  talk  for  us.  So  we  just  supposed  he 
was  listening  —  and  learning. 

Well,  you  know  about  the  Thanksgiving  play.  This  year  the 
folks  worked  up  that  hoary  old  "  Spanish  Bride,"  but  it  sure  did 
come  near  not  being  given  in  full  after  all.  In  one  of  the  scenes 
they  had  a  lot  of  canaries  in  cages,  singing ;  and  somebody  sug- 
gested that  my  parrot  would  add  some  class  to  the  tropical  tout 
ensemble.  I  told  them  he  was  a  dummy  —  would  n't  or  could  n't 
talk ;  but  they  said  he  'd  look  good,  anyhow ;  so  I  brought  him 
along  to  the  last  three  rehearsals.  Well,  he  did  n't  say  anything ; 
he  just  sat,  and  cocked  his  head,  and  bit  his  cage,  and  squawked 
now  and  then,  when  he  was  on  the  stage.  But  I  put  him  over  on 
the  women's  side  of  the  stage  when  he  was  not  "  on,"  because  the 
boys  were  always  teasing  him.  That 's  where  he  saw  old  Jordan 
and  Marjory  Meekins  a-sparkin' ;  and  you  know  old  Jordan  's  been 
sparking  Marge  for  ten  years.  Well,  one  night  I  forgot  him  until 
I  was  in  bed;  but  Marjory  had  carried  him  with  her,  old  Jordan, 
of  course,  seeing  her  home. 

Well,  Bub,  there  is  a  scene  where  Marjory,  as  the  unwilling 
betrothed  of  a  villainous  old  Spaniard  (old  Jordan),  is  gloomily 
sitting  in  her  boudoir  with  the  canaries  and  my  parrot,  when  in 
comes  old  Jordan.  He  was  not  made  up  to  any  extent.  He  walks 
over  to  Marge  and  begins  to  make  love ;  she  listlessly  or  hopelessly 
offers  no  objection,  and  presently  the  old  boy  prints  a  chaste  kiss 
on  her  left  ear.  That 's  where  the  play  broke  up ;  for  that  parrot 
began  to  beat  his  wings  against  the  cage  and  to  scream  at  the  top 
of  his  voice,  "  Now  not  another  one,  Mr.  Jordan  !  Now  not  another 
one,  Mr.  Jordan  !  "  and  so  following,  until  the  audience  was  scream- 
ing, the  actors  whooping,  old  Jordan  cussing  the  parrot,  and  Mar- 
jory bursting  into  tears  —  proper   hysterics,    I   guess,  —  and  the 


INTEREST  93 

parrot  still  at  it.    And  he  kept  it  up,  too,  until  they  got  the  curtain 
down  and  somebody  put  a  shawl  over  the  cage. 

But,  sonny,  that  brought  old  Jordan  to  the  end  of  a  ten-years' 
courtship.  Hark !  they  're  going  to  be  married  to-morrow  night, 
and  the  old  boy  has  bought  my  bird  for  one  of  the  bridal  presents. 
But  everybody  laughs  when  the  thing  is  mentioned ;  honest,  I 
screamed  until  I  got  down  on  the  floor,  and  then  I  lost  my  breath 
until  Bat  Martin,  who  was  in  the  same  shape,  inadvertently  planted 
a  convulsive  kick  right  between  my  shoulders.  Gee !  can't  you 
see  old  Jordan,  his  cross  eyes  glaring,  his  false  teeth  all  but  falling 
out  as  he  danced  in  his  rage,  and  the  Spanish  sash  he  had  on  all 
between  his  feet  and  about  to  trip  him !  —  Move  up,  Joe,  and  get 
home  ;  you  're  missing  a  heap  ! 

There 's  a  lot  doing,  anyhow.  Gene  Higgins  has  got  a  new  red 
necktie,  and  I  've  got  a  new  sweater,  and  John  Babb  's  got  the 
chicken-pox,  and  my  father 's  got  the  same  old  grouch,  and  your 
cousin  Amelia 's  got  a  new  hat. 

So  hurry  home,  son,  before  everything  happens,  and  especially 
before  it  comes  my  turn  to  write  to  you  again. 

'Yours  sincerely, 
Bert. 
EXERCISE  76  —  Written 

SECURING  INTEREST  IN  LETTERS 

Outline  a  letter  to  a  friend,  or  use  the  letter  written  in 
Exercise  72.  Then  try  by  revision  and  rewriting  to  make  it 
alive  and  interesting  as  the  writers  did  in  the  illustrations 
above.  Don't  try  to  imitate.  Your  letter  will  be  more  inter- 
esting if  it  is  full  oi  j'O!/. 

Few  things  dampen  one's  interest  like  a  perfunctory  series 
of  comments  in  a  reply  to  what  he  has  written.  Every  one 
of  us  has  broken  the  seal  of  a  letter  with  interest,  only  to 
have  it  deadened  entirely  by  such  comments  as  :  "  I  am  glad 
that  you  and  all  the  family  are  well.  You  must  have  been  dis- 
appointed at  not  going  on  the  picnic.  However,  as  you  say, 
you  had  some  compensation  in  the  visit  from  Cousin  Tony." 


94  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

Be  careful  in  writing  to  answer  any  questions  that  may 
have  been  asked  you.  It  is  annoying  to  ask  in  a  letter  a 
direct  question  and  then  in  the  reply  to  find  it  overlooked. 
Common  courtesy,  if  nothing  else,  demands  an  answer. 

When  through  with  what  you  have  to  say,  end  your  letter. 
The  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  stop  writing.  How  often  one 
mars  the  pleasant  impression  of  a  letter  by  adding  silly  or 
stilted  remarks,  lingering  like  an  awkward  boy  after  a  call, 
with  nothing  else  to  say,  yet  unable  to  get  out  of  the  room  ! 
If  one  thinks  of  a  graceful  ending,  it  is  all  right,  of  course,  to 
use  it ;  but  an  abrupt  close  is  far  better  than  an  insincere  one. 

Sam  Weller  in  his  famous  valentine  does  not  conclude 
gracefully ;  but  he  does  illustrate  one  important  principle  in 
effective  letter-writing. 

"  Except  this,  Mary,  very  dear,  as  your  valentine,  and  think  over 
what  I  've  said.  My  dear  Mary,  I  will  now  conclude.  That  "s  all," 
said  Sam. 

"That's  rather  a  sudden  pull  up,  ain't  it,  Sammy?"  inquired 
Mr.  'Weller. 

"  Not  a  bit  on  it,"  said  Sam  ;  "  she  '11  wish  there  wos  more,  and 
that's  the  great  art  o'  letter-writin'.'' 

EXERCISE  11— Oral 

THE   ENDINGS   OE   LETTERS 

Criticize  the  endings  of  the  letters  you  have  written  in 
previous  exercises.    Try  to  improve  them. 


In  friendly  letters  there  arc  many  acceptable  forms  of 
leave-taking.  Contrary  to  the  custom  in  business  letters, 
where  the  leave-taking  is  merely  a  form,  in  social  letters 
it  may  be  made  to  convey  actual  feeling,    l^^ry  7-espectfiiUy 


INTEREST  95 

yours,  Sincerely  yours,  and  Your  true  friend  akvays,  can  by 
no  means  be  used  interchangeably.  The  leave-taking  should, 
of  course,  be  in  harmony  with  the  body  of  the  letter.  Not 
infrequently  in  friendly  letters  the  leave-taking  is  made  a 
part  of  the  body ;  for  instance, 

Even  though  you  have  moved  away  to  live,  I  hope  that 
you  will  never  forget  Tuscola  and 

Your  true  friend, 

David  Lewis. 

It  is  not  considered  good  form  to  write  for  the  leave-taking 
merely  Yours. 

The  signature  to  a  friend  of  any  kind  is,  preferably,  the 
writer's  name,  so  that,  if  the  letter  go  astray  in  the  mails,  it 
may  be  returned.  But  as  that  mishap  is  a  rare  possibility,  in 
letters  to  intimate  friends  one  often  signs  merely  his  Christian 
name,  initials,  or  nickname,  provided  he  is  absolutely  sure 
the  recipient  will  be  in  no  doubt  as  to  the  writer's  identity. 

EXERCISE  78  —  Written 
LEAVE-TAKING   AND    SIGNATURE 

Write  the  leave-taking  and  signature  of  the  letters  enu- 
merated in  Exercise  73. 

Before  laying  your  letter  aside  finally,  read  it  over  aloud 
to  yourself.  How  should  you  like  to  receive  this  letter  if  you 
were  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed } 

II.  Formal  Letters 

Similar  to  the  "friendly  letter"  is  a  type  used  when  one 
writes  to  a  person  little  known  or  to  a  stranger,  particularly 
to  a  representative  of  some  organization  or  institution.  Such 
a  type  is  always  necessary  when  one  does  not  know  (or  need 


96  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

to  know)  the  name  of  the  person  addressed,  unless  the  con- 
tents of  the  letter  are  of  commercial  nature  and  therefore 
demand  the  "  business  letter." 

This  type,  which  may  be  called  the  "  formal  letter,"  differs 
from  the  "friendly  letter"  in  tone,  of  course.  Moreover  it 
usually  will  have  for  its  salutation  Jlfy  dear  Sir,  the  address 
will  be  followed  by  a  colon  or  a  colon  and  dash,  and  the  name 
of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  written,  sometimes  with  his  ad- 
dress, will  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  letter,  beginnng  at  the 
left-hand  margin. 


Mv  dear  Sir : 


533  West  124th  Street, 
New  York,  New  York,^ 
October  25,  191: 


Yours  very  truly, 


F.  S.  Lunt,  Esquire, 
Freeport,  Illinois. 


My  dear  Sir: 


16  Eighteenth  Street,  N.W. 
Washington 

District  of  Columbia 
October  25,  191 1 


Very  truly  yours 


The  Librarian  of  Yale  University 

1  When  a  letter  is  written  from  the  city  of  Xcw  York,  the  name  of  the  state  is 
frequently  omitted.  Extension  of  the  practice  should  certainly  be  discouraged,  how- 
ever, as  leading  to  inevitable  confusion. 


INTEREST  97 

III.  Pseudo-Letters 

Post-cards  are  said  by  some  to  be  destroying  the  letter- 
writing  habit  in  America.  Surely  this  is  charging  too  much  ; 
but  just  as  surely  it  has  some  basis  in  fact.  The  souvenir 
post-card,  when  not  gaudy  and  vulgar,  affords  a  means  of 
pleasant  greeting  to  a  friend  ;  but  it  should  not  be  permitted 
to  take  the  place  of  a  real  letter.  One  should  never,  of  course, 
write  on  a  post-card  anything  of  a  private  nature. 

EXERCISE  79  —  Written 

TEST  LETTERS 

1 .  If  there  are  any  improvements  needed  at  your  school, 
write  to  the  superintendent  and  courteously  explain  what  they 
are  and  why  they  should  be  made. 

2.  Graduates  often  wonder  what  is  going  on  in  the  school 
that  they  attended.  Choose  some  one  who  was  a  pupil  in  your 
school  and  write  him  of  what  you  think  will  be  interesting. 

3.  You  have  no  doubt  read  recently  a  story  or  a  poem  that 
you  liked  verv  much.  Write  to  the  author  and  tell  him  what 
you  liked  particularly  in  his  work.  You  might  encourage  him 
to  write  something  even  more  interesting  along  the  same  lines. 

4.  It  may  be  that  you  are  tired  of  the  way  that  you  and 
your  friends  are  spending  recess.  Schools  differ  in  so  many 
respects  that  what  you  do  at  recess  might  be  very  interesting 
to  the  pupils  in  another  town.  Write  to  a  class  similar  to  yours 
and  tell  about  your  recess.  Make  it  seem  interesting,  but  at 
the  same  time  show  your  feeling  about  it.  Ask  for  suggestions. 

5.  After  teachers  leave  a  school  they  are  usually  inter- 
ested in  what  their  former  pupils  are  doing.  Write  and  tell 
a  former  teacher  of  3'our  class  what  he  probably  would  like 
to  know.    Remember,  in  doing  this,  that  you  have  no  right 


98  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

to  wound  tlie  feelings  of  your  fellow  pupils,  even  to  make 
your  letter  amusing. 

6.  You  have  organized  a  literary  or  social  club  in  the 
school.  Write  to  the  principal,  asking  certain  favors  (the  use 
of  a  room,  to  be  excused  from  certain  work,  etc.),  and,  that 
you  may  convince  him,  state  clearly  and  pleasantly  the  ad- 
vantages that  the  school  will  derive  from  the  society. 

7.  You  have  just  finished  a  book  which  you  enjoyed  so 
thoroughly  that  you  wish  some  friend  to  have  the  pleasure  of 
reading  it,  too.  Write  to  him,  recommending  the  book,  speci- 
fying what  in  it  you  particularly  enjoyed,  and  telling  why  you 
think  that  he  should  read  it. 

8.  You  have  entered  the  school  for  the  first  time.  Write 
to  a  friend  in  your  old  home,  telling  him  of  the  good  and  of 
the  bad  in  the  new  school.  You  must  be  careful  to  look  at 
ever}'thing  through  new  eyes,  a  hard  thing  to  do.  Be  very 
definite  in  making  your  points  :  remember  that  criticism  does 
not  mean  merely  fault-finding.  When  criticizing  adversely, 
suggest  possible  remedies. 

9.  Answer  the  preceding  letter,  assuming  that  you  have 
visited  or  been  a  member  of  the  school  previously.  Agree 
with  the  critic  regarding  some  matters  ;  courteously  point  out 
his  errors  in  others.  You  can  convince  him  best  by  citing 
definite  facts  and  instances  to  support  your  statements. 

10.  You  are  in  doubt  what  occupation  to  follow  after 
leaving  school.  Write  to  some  man  whose  opinion  you  re- 
spect and  ask  his  advice.  Be  sure  that  you  tell  him  all  the 
facts  about  yourself  that  he  needs  to  know. 

1 1 .  The  manager  of  your  ball  team  wrote  to  the  manager 
of  a  rival  team  and  proposed  a  game.  After  the  exchange 
of  several  letters  the  challenge  was  accepted  and  all  the 
details  arranged.    Reproduce  the  correspondence. 


INTEREST  99 

B.   CHOICE   OF   DETAILS 

Not  only  in  letter-writing  but  in  all  kinds  of  composition 
we  face  the  problem  of  what  to  include  and  what  to  leave 
out.  In  attempting  to  interest  a  hearer  or  reader  we  find 
the  choice  of  details  a  very  important  consideration.  It  is 
impossible  to  tell  everything.  Which  details  shall  we  choose  .'' 

EXERCISE  80 -Ora/ 

SEEING   THE   INTEREST   OF   DETAILS 

You  have  already  discovered  the  fact  that  details  help  to 
give  interest,  and  you  have  been  taught  in  some  cases  to  nar- 
row your  subject  so  that  in  the  same  space  you  could  for  the 
sake  of  interest  give  more  details.  Compare  the  two  themes 
following.  What  details  are  given  in  the  second  }  Of  what 
sentences  in  the  first  composition  is  the  second  an  expansion  1 
What  definite  words  are  especially  appropriate  .'' 

A  TRIP   TO   THE   RIVER 

On  a  hot  day  in  July  another  boy  and  I  rode  to  the  river  on  our 
wheels.  We  got  a  rowboat  and  started  up  the  river.  The  first 
thing  we  did  was  to  run  into  a  brush  pile  at  the  water's  edge. 
Then  we  ran  into  the  bank.  As  we  were  rounding  the  bend  we 
saw  another  boat  loaded  with  boys  who  looked  too  much  like 
pirates  to  suit  me.  They  were  armed  to  the  teeth  with  empty  cans 
which  they  promptly  filled.  They  tried  to  board,  but  failed ;  and 
then  we  were  doused,  but  were  none  the  worse  for  it.  We  went  on 
and  stuck  on  a  sand  bar  and  had  to  get  out  and  push  for  dear  life 
for  about  ten  minutes  in  water  knee-deep.  That  was  enough  for 
one  afternoon,  and  we  hurried  home,  stopping  only  for  a  bottle  of 
pop  at  a  country  store. 


lOO  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

AN  ADVENTURE  WITH  A  PIRATE   CRAFT 

On  a  hot  afternoon  while  rowing  on  the  river  we  espied  a  boat- 
load of  boys  ahead.  It  took  us  about  one  minute  to  see  that  they 
were  pirates.  The  weapons  of  the  pirates  consisted  of  empty  tin 
cans  and  three  squirt  guns.  As  they  drew  alongside  they  gave  a 
cheer  and  made  a  brave  attempt  to  board,  but  failed.  A  squirt  gun 
was  then  aimed  at  me,  and  its  fire  took  me  unexpectedly  in  the 
face.  The  battle  now  began  in  earnest.  In  five  minutes  we  were 
both  wet  and  getting  wetter  every  minute.  With  an  oar  we  nearly 
succeeded  in  overturning  the  pirate  craft  in  the  shallow  water,  and 
would  have  done  so  had  not  our  boat  given  a  lurch  and  sent  me 
sprawling.  Then  began  a  chase,  the  enemy  still  near  enough  to 
continue  the  fight  with  "  long-range  "  squirt  guns.  We  soon  left 
them  far  behind,  however,  though  the  fierce  yells  of  the  pirates 
pursued  us  far  up  the  river. 

The  choice  of  details  is  generally  determined  by  our  pur- 
pose. Sometimes  we  need  to  make  a  description  as  accurate 
as  possible,  not  choosing  details  so  much  as  including  every 
one  that  will  distinguish  a  particular  person  or  thing  from 
another  of  its  kind.  Such  a  description  is  given  In"  the  police 
authorities  when  they  desire  a  man  to  be  captured  and  brought 
to  court.  This  is  a  very  different  kind  of  description,  as  the 
following  exercises  will  show,  from  the  one  intended  to  pro- 
duce a  certain  effect  or  to  make  a  certain  picture. 

EXERCISE  81  —  Written 
CHOOSING   DETAILS   ACCORDING   TO    A    PURPOSE 

a.  Write  two  short  descriptions  of  the  same  subject : 
(i)  Describe  a  man  who  is  wanted  for  trial.  Remember  that 
any  peculiarities  which  he  cannot  easily  disguise  are  most 
important  to  mention.    Do  not  make  an  overdrawn  portrait, 


INTEREST  lOl 

but  make  an  accurate  one,  including  weight  and  measure- 
ments, (2)  Describe  the  same  person  in  a  few  sentences  as 
you  would  introduce  him  in  a  story  ;  try  to  make  the  reader 
interested  in  him. 

b.  Describe  a  place  with  scientific  accuracy,  and  the  same 
place  by  picturing  details  only.  Tr^-  the  sitting-room  at  home, 
the  pond,  or  the  attic.  Criticize  these  themes  for  sincerity  as 
well  as  for  good  choice  of  details,  and  for  definite  words. 

The  description  for  accuracy  does  not  leave  us  much  room 
for  choice,  and  is  not  especially  concerned  with  interest.  But 
oftener  our  purpose  is  to  give  some  particular  effect,  and 
hence  our  details  must  all  contribute  to  this  one  end.  The 
last  two  exercises  must  have  shown  that  this  end  is  not  easy 
to  achieve.  "The  difficulty  of  literature,"  says  Stevenson, 
"  is  not  to  write,  but  to  write  what  you  mean  ;  not  to  affect 
your  reader,  but  to  affect  him  precisely  as  you  wish."  You 
have  been  unconsciously  choosing  your  details  for  one  effect 
in  many  of  the  exercises  already  tried —  "  Autumn,"  for  in- 
stance, or  "  The  Liveliest  Scene  I  Ever  Saw."  When  the 
effect  is  presented  for  you,  as  in  several  of  these  exercises, 
part  of  your  task  is  already  done ;  later  you  must  decide  for 
yourselves  what  is  the  characteristic  atmosphere  of  the  person 
or  place  pictured. 

EXERCISE  82  —  Oral 
STUDYING   DETAILS   TO   PRODUCE  AN  EFFECT 

a.  In  the  theme  on  a  lively  scene  given  in  the  last  chapter 
(p.  69),  what  details  are  chosen  to  give  the  desired  effect .-' 
Are  any  unnecessary  .''  Make  a  list  of  the  details  that  impress 
you  with  liveliness  of  action  or  with  noise  and  Confusion. 


I02  IHRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

/;,  In  the  following  description  what  details  are  chosen  to 
give  the  effect  of  heat  and  drought  ?  ICxplain  :  Jiiirturcd, 
sterile,  languid,  listlessly,  ivJiiniper,  petulant,  p?-eei}icts, 
progeny,   indolent. 

The  September  sun  shone  with  summer-like  fervor  in  the  little 
valley  of  Danvis ;  not  an  afternoon  of  August  had  been  hotter,  or 
breathed  a  droughtier  breath  upon  wilting  forests  and  seared  fields. 
Here  and  there  among  the  dusky  green  of  the  woods,  a  tree  nur- 
tured by  more  sterile  rootage  than  its  neighbors  was  burning  out 
its  untimely  ripeness  in  a  blaze  of  red  or  yellow,  from  which  the 
puffs  of  warm  wind  scattered  sparks  of  color  so  intense  that  it 
seemed  as  if  they  might  kindle  the  dry  earth. 

All  nature  was  languid  in  the  unseasonable  heat  and  drought. 
The  unrefreshing  breeze  blew  in  lazy  puffs  without  even  energy  of 
direction,  but  listlessly  trying  this  quarter  and  that,  now  bearing, 
now  dropping  the  light  burden  of  a  tree's  complaining,  the  rustle 
of  the  rolled  corn  leaves,  the  faint  whimper  of  tired  brooks,  the 
petulant  clamor  of  the  crows,  and  the  high,  far-away  scream  of  a 
hawk  that,  level  with  the  breezy  mountain  peaks,  wheeled  in  slow 
circles,  a  hot  brown  speck  against  the  bronze  sky. 

The  same  wearied  air  pervaded  the  precincts  of  Joseph  Hill's 
home  and  the  house  itself.  The  hens  lay  panting  with  drooped 
wings  under  the  scant  shade  of  the  currant  bushes,  whose  shriveled 
remnant  of  fruit  gave  no  promise  of  refreshing  coolness ;  their 
half-grown  progeny  stalked  aimlessly  about  the  yard  in  indolent 
quest  of  nothing,  while  they  grated  out  the  discordant  yelp  which 
is  neither  peep  nor  cluck,  and  expresses  nothing  if  not  continual 
discontent ;  and  the  ducks  waddled  home,  thirsty  and  unhappy, 
from  the  dried-up  puddle. 

The  hollyhock  stalks  stood  naked  and  forlorn  among  the  droop- 
ing leaves,  with  only  here  and  there  a  blossom  too  stunted  to  tempt 
a  bumble-bee  showing  among  the  browning  buttons  of  seed-vessels. 
The  morning-glory  leaves  hung  limp  upon  their  twisted  vines,  that 
had  evidently  blown  their  last  purple  trumpet  to  call  the  bees, 
clutching  their  supporting  cords  only  with  a  dying  grasp. 

RowLA.ND  E.  Robinson,  "  Danvis  Folks "' 


INTEREST  103 

c.  Here  is  a  composition  written  by  a  pupil  Make  a  list 
of  the  details  used  to  give  the  effect  of  the  heat.  Are  the 
details  definite  ?    Do  they  seem  sincere  ? 

A   HOT   DAY 

The  sky  is  blue,  not  a  cloud  is  to  be  seen,  and  the  sun  is  beat- 
ing down  pitilessly  on  the  already  withering  grass  and  dusty  road. 
Sitting  beneath  the  hickory  tree  at  the  left  is  a  small  boy  in  blue 
overalls,  fanning  his  hot  face  with  his  large  straw  hat.  His  hair  is 
wet  and  the  sweat  runs  down  his  face  in  large  drops  as  he  gazes 
dolefully  at  the  lawn-mower  and  the  uncut  grass  before  him.  Not 
far  behind  the  tree  is  a  house  with  a  wide  verandah  in  front.  There 
are  rugs  thrown  over  the  railing,  and  two  litde  girls,  barefooted, 
with  their  hair  done  up  in  knots  on  the  tops  of  their  heads,  and 
wearing  aprons  with  low  necks  and  no  sleeves,  are  sitting  on  top 
of  the  rugs,  swinging  their  legs.  All  the  chairs  are  out  on  the 
grass  except  one,  in  which  a  woman  is  resting.  She  wears  an  apron 
over  a  blue  dress,  and  a  broom  is  leaning  against  the  railing.  A 
little  boy  about  two  years  old  is  enjoying  himself  playing  in  a 
bucket  of  water  on  the  steps.  The  woman  is  evidently  going  to 
scrub  the  porch  in  an  attempt  to  cool  the  air.  The  leaves  of  the 
trees  are  dusty  and  motionless,  and  there  is  no  sound  but  the  low 
hum  of  a  summer's  day  and  the  talking  of  the  little  girls. 

EXERCISE  83  —  Written 

CHOOSING   DETAILS   TO  PRODUCE   AN  EFFECT 
Write  a  description  to  give  the  effect  of  heat  or  of  cold. 
Choose  details  and  words  carefully ;   write  sincerely,  without 
exaggeration.    Your  title  may  be  "  The  Hottest  Day  of  Sum- 
mer "  or  "  The  Coldest  Day  (or  Night)  of  the  Year." 

A  description  in  which  only  the  most  suggestive  details 
are  given,  for  the  sake  of  producing  on  the  reader  a  certain 
effect,  is  called  a  literary  description ;  one  in  which  all  the 


I04  FIRST  lK)CHv  OF  COMPOSFriUX 

details  that  will  aid  clearness  are  given,  for  the  sake  of  re- 
producing accurately  the  object,  place,  or  person  described,  is 
called  a  scientific  description.  The  difference  between  these 
two  methods  of  description  is  very  much  the  difference 
between  an  artist's  portrait  and  an  untouched  photograph. 
The  artist,  if  he  sees  into  the  character  of  his  subject,  will 
suppress  many  details  that  the  camera  would  show,  suppress 
them  for  the  sake  of  truly  expressing  that  character  behind 
them.  This  careful  choice  of  details  is  one  way  of  distin- 
guishing between  /act  and  trittJi. 

EXERCISE  84  — Oro/ 
SEEING  THE   EFFECT  OF   SUPrRESSING   DETAILS 

Find  and  bring  to  class  reproductions  of  paintings  and  of 
photographs  showing  somewhat  similar  scenes  or  people 
treated  in  the  artist's  and  in  the  photographer's  manner.  Be 
ready  to  tell  what  details  the  artist  has  suppressed  and  what 
effect  he  gains.  Good  examples  would  be  Turner's  "  Venice  " 
and  a  photograph  of  the  Grand  Canal ;  or  his  "  Rain,  Steam, 
and  Speed  "  and  a  photograph  of  a  moving  express  train  ;  or 
a  portrait  of  Walt  Whitman  and  his  photograph  at  about  the 
same  age.  Nowadays  photographers  often  get  the  effect  of 
an  artist's  portrait  by  suppressing  many  details.  Find  some 
examples  of  children's  pictures  illustrative  of  this. 

EXERCISE  85  —  Oral  or  Written 
WRITING   SCIENTIFIC   AND   LITERARY   DESCRIPTION 

Give,  as  in  Exercise  8i  above,  a  scientific  and  a  literary 
description  of  the  same  room,  of  the  same  field,  of  the  same 
building  (exterior),  or  of  the  same  person.  In  the  scientific 
description  be  clear  and  accurate  ;  in  the  literary  description 


INTEREST  105 

be  interesting  and  truthful  to  the  impression  you  wish  to 
give.  In  the  literary  description  choose  only  the  details  which 
suggest  the  character  of  the  scene  or  person  described,  and 
do  not  try  to  give  more  than  ojic  effect. 

EXERCISE  86  —  Written 
CHOOSING   DETAILS    FOR  CONTRASTED   EFFECTS 

Let  half  the  class  write  on  the  title  "A  Deserted  House," 
the  other  half  on  "  A  Comfortable  Home."  Each  pupil  should 
choose  with  care  a  few  definite  details. 


In  telling  a  story  no  less  than  in  writing  a  description, 
constant  choice  is  necessary.  If  you  were  to  set  down  every 
least  thing  that  you  did  and  saw  and  heard  and  thought  and 
said  on  even  the  most  ordinary  day,  your  record  would  fill  a 
volume  and  would  be  very  uninteresting.  Generally  we  choose 
events  that  have  some  bearing  on  a  certain  thread  of  interest 
—  things  that  are,  as  we  say,  important  to  the  story.  Why, 
at  the  end  of  Part  One  in  "  Silas  Marner,"  does  George  Eliot 
skip  sixteen  years  .?  Why,  in  almost  any  story,  does  the  author 
dwell  at  length  on  certain  days,  or  hours,  or  minutes,  and 
leave  out  dozens  of  others .'' 

EXERCISE  ^l— Written 
CHOOSING   DETAILS    IN    STORY-TELLING 

Write  the  story  of  a  day,  choosing  either  a  particularly 
happy,  or  a  particularly  disagreeable,  or  a  particularly  unfortu- 
nate day,  and  selecting  the  details  to  make  the  effect  that  you 
wish.  Do  not  say  that  once  you  were  happy  or  worn-out  or 
sad,  but  show  by  what  you  tell,  and  the  way  in  which  you  tell 


lo6  ilRSl'  I'AJOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

it,  how  you  must  have  felt.    Be  sure  to  choose  your  words  no 
less  carefully  than  you  choose  your  details. 

Comment  on  the  details  and   the  definite  (or  indefinite) 
words  in  this  theme  : 

A   DAY   OF  MY   LIFE 

It  began  early  in  the  morning,  when  I  woke  up  with  a  yawn  and 
saw  my  own  breath  rising  in  a  cloud.  I  frowned  and  turned  with  a 
dreamy  crossness  to  the  window.  All  I  saw  here  was  a  forest  of 
Jack  Frost's  own  making  so  very  dense  with  ferns  and  underbrush 
that  I  couldn't  scratch  my  way  to  the  outer  world.  Just  then  I 
heard  papa's  voice  calling  that  if  I  wanted  any  breakfast  I  'd  better 
hurry  up.  I  muttered  under  my  breath  that  I  did  n't  want  any ; 
but  answered  with  an  audible  but  ungracious,  "  Well." 

Finally  with  an  effort  I  crawled  out  of  bed  and  ran  across  the 
room  for  my  slippers.  Slipping  my  foot  into  a  stocking,  I  was  go- 
ing to  put  on  my  slippers  when  I  saw  in  my  stocking  a  little  hole. 
Pulling  it  off,  I  ran  to  the  sewing  room  for  a  needle  and  thread,  and 
then  proceeded  to  prick  my  finger.  When  I  had  finished  this  and 
dressed,  I  went  downstairs.  To  mamma's  cheerful,  "  Good-morning," 
I  answered  shortly;  and  then,  to  turn  her  attention  from  me,  I  asked 
what  was  the  matter  with  the  furnace.  Papa  answered  that  it  was 
like  me,  all  wrong,  and  he  ended  this  explanation  by  asking  if  I 
had  n't  got  out  on  the  wrong  side  of  bed.  This  did  n't  help  my 
temper  and  I  turned  away  to  find  a  cold  breakfast  awaiting  me. 
This  made  me  angry,  and  my  feelings  were  a  great  deal  relieved  by 
breaking  a  glass  pitcher  of  value.  After  trying  to  eat,  with  lots  of 
grumbling  to  wash  the  food  down.  I  went  in  to  get  ready  for  school. 

At  last,  after  troubles  too  numerous  to  mention,  I  got  started ; 
only  to  realize,  as  I  stepped  outside  the  door,  that  I  had  my  house- 
slippers  on.  I  ran  back  and  after  a  few  minutes'  search  I  found 
my  shoes  and  started  again.  After  a  quick  run  I  got  to  school  just 
in  time  to  see  my  class  passing.  I  hurriedly  followed,  and  when  the 
teacher  called  on  me  for  the  three  terms  of  percentage,  I  arose  and 
breathlessly  answered,  "  Subject,  copula,  and  predicate  attribute." 
Of  course  a  scolding  ensued,  and  I,  feeling  pretty  uncomfortable, 
went  down  to  chapel. 


INTEREST  107 

Everything  went  wrong  until  in  the  afternoon  we  went  to  manual 
training.  Here  I  proceeded  to  slice  the  end  off  my  finger.  After 
this,  school  ended,  and  I  started  to  the  lake  to  skate.  I  was  with  a 
group  of  girls  and  as  they  chattered  I  heard  some  one  say,  "  I  "m 
so  glad  I  took  my  music  lesson  yesterday."'  Then  with  a  great 
pang  of  disappointment  and  anger  I  thought  of  7ny  music  lesson, 
which  had  to  be  this  afternoon.  Slowly  I  went  to  the  music  room, 
where  I  was  in  vain  reminded  that  I  was  leaving  out  my  fiats. 

When  I  went  home  that  evening,  I  was  glad  I  had  a  headache 
so  that  I  could  go  to  bed  at  once.  A  little  later  as  I  lay  on  the  bed, 
I  heard  some  one  in  the  street  singing, 

"If  you  're  cross  and  angry, 
Don't  get  mad ! 
If  you  're  cross  and  angry. 
Then  please  get  glad  !  " 

Then  I  thought  that  it  was  easy  to  say  things,  but  not  so  easy  to 
do  them. 

C.  ORDER  OF  DETAILS 

In  telling  a  story  the  order  of  events  in  time  takes  care  of 
some  of  the  order  of  our  details,  but  in  picturing  we  find  that 
multitudes  of  impressions  strike  our  eyes  and  ears  at  the  same 
time.  Which  shall  we  speak  of  first }  The  order  of  the  details 
is  hardly  less  important  than  the  selection  of  them. 

EXERCISE  88  —  Oral 
STUDYING    THE   ORDER   OF   DETAILS 

Look  again  at  the  selections  from  Stevenson  and  Mason 
in  the  third  chapter.  Notice  that  the  order  follows  the  eye 
from  the  foreground  out  and  out  to  the  farthest  things  that 
can  be  seen.  Why  }  What  is  the  order  of  details  in  the 
account  (page  68)  of  Alexander  Hamilton's  ride  through 
the  storm  t  Show  how  the  time-order  comes  in  to  help  out 
the  place-order. 


io8  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

EXERCISE  89  —  Written 
IMPROVING   THE   ORDER   OF   DETAILS 

If  the  order  of  details  in  your  last  description  of  a  house  can 
be  improved,  rewrite  the  theme.  Do  not  skip  from  the  outside 
to  the  inside  and  back  again,  but  follow  some  definite  plan. 

EXERCISE  90  —  Oral 

CHOOSING  AND  ARRANGING   DETAILS   FOR  CLEAR 
EXPLANATION 

Explain  every  move  you  make  in  tying  some  kind  of  knot. 
Test  the  clearness  of  your  explanation  by  letting  your  class- 
mates actually  tie  the  knots,  following  your  directions  exactly. 

EXERCISE  91  —  Oral 

CRITICIZING  THE  ORDER  OF   DETAILS 

Criticize  the  order  of  details  in  the  following  description  : 

The  sexton  has  on  a  large  woolen  cap  with  the  flaps  pulled  down 
over  his  ears.  His  face  is  very  wrinkled  and  he  looks  about  forty- 
five  years  old.  He  has  on  a  black  coat  that  is  very  small  for  him, 
and  has  become  green  from  age.  He  has  on  a  large  pair  of  gloves 
made  of  some  kind  of  leather  lined  with  fur.  His  coat  comes  down 
to  his  knees  and  is  very  ragged  at  the  bottom.  In  one  hand  he 
carries  a  large  bunch  of  keys  all  belonging  to  different  parts  of  the 
church.  His  stockings  are  heavy  woolen  ones,  and  his  shoes  are 
black  with  two  very  large  buckles  on  them.  In  the  other  hand  he 
carries  a  large  lantern.  The  globe  is  so  badly  smoked  that  the  light 
can  hardly  be  seen. 

In  describing  almost  anything,  but  especially  a  person  or  a 
place,  it  is  often  well  to  give  first  a  sentence  that  tells  the 
general  effect.  Sometimes  the  details  are  given  first  and  the 
general  impression  last. 


INTEREST  109 

EXERCISE  92  —  Oral 

STUDYING  THE   CHOICE  AND  THE  ARRANGEMENT 
OF   DETAILS 

Study  the  following  description  of  a  place  and  of  a  person 
and  note  the  choice  and  the  arrangement  of  details.  What  is 
the  general  effect  ?  Is  this  given  first  or  last  ?  What  are  the 
most  effective  details  ? 

a.  It  was  such  a  scene  of  confusion  as  you  can  hardly  fancy. 
All  the  lockfast  places  had  been  broken  open  in  quest  of  the  chart. 
The  floor  was  thick  with  mud,  where  the  ruffians  had  sat  down  to 
drink  or  consult  after  wading  in  the  marshes  round  their  camp. 
The  bulkheads,  all  painted  in  clear  white,  and  beaded  round  with 
gilt,  bore  a  pattern  of  dirty  hands.  Dozens  of  empty  bottles  clinked 
together  in  corners  to  the  rolling  of  the  ship.  One  of  the  doctor's 
medical  books  lay  open  on  the  table,  half  of  the  leaves  gutted  out, 
I  suppose,  for  pipe  lights.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  the  lamp  still 
cast  a  smoky  glow,  obscure  and  brown  as  umber. 

Stevexsox,  "  Treasure  Island  " 

b.  Lizzy  [is]  the  plaything  and  queen  of  the  village,  a  child  three 
years  old  according  to  the  register,  but  six  in  size  and  strength  and 
intellect,  in  power  and  in  self-will.  She  manages  everybody  in  the 
place,  her  schoolmistress  included ;  turns  the  wheeler's  children 
out  of  their  own  little  cart  and  makes  them  draw  her :  seduces  cake 
and  lollypops  from  the  very  shop  windows  ;  makes  the  lazy  carry 
her,  the  silent  talk  to  her,  the  grave  romp  with  her ;  does  every- 
thing she  pleases ;  is  absolutely  irresistible.  Her  chief  attraction 
lies  in  her  exceeding  power  of  loving,  and  her  firm  reliance  on  the 
love  and  indulgence  of  others.  How  impossible  it  would  be  to  dis- 
appoint the  dear  little  girl  when  she  runs  to  meet  you,  slides  her 
pretty  hand  into  yours,  looks  up  gladly  in  your  face,  and  says 
"  Come !  "  You  must  go  :  you  cannot  help  it.  Another  part  of  her 
charm  is  her  singular  beauty.  Together  with  a  good  deal  of  the 
character  of  Napoleon,  she  has  something  of  his  square,  sturdy, 
upright  form,  with  the  finest  limbs  in  the  world,  and  complexion 
purely  English,  a  round  laughing  face,  sunburnt  and  rosy,  large 


no  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFITON 

merry  blue  eyes,  curling  brown  hair,  and  a  wonderful  play  of  coun- 
tenance. She  has  the  imperial  attitudes  too,  and  loves  to  stand  with 
her  hands  behind  her,  or  folded  over  her  bosom ;  and  sometimes, 
when  she  has  a  touch  of  shyness,  she  clasps  them  together  on  the 
top  of  her  head,  pressing  down  her  shining  curls,  and  looking  so 
exquisitely  pretty !    Yes,  Lizzy  is  queen  of  the  village. 

Miss  Mitford,  "  Our  Village  " 

EXERCISE  93  -  Written  or  Oral 

CHOOSING  AND  ARRANGING    DETAILS   TO   PRODUCE  AN 
EFFECT  IN   DESCRIPTION 

Write  a  description  of  some  person,  giving  attention  to 
choice  and  arrangement  of  details  that  produce  a  general 
effect,  to  definite  words,  to  sincerity,  and  to  point  of  view. 
You  will  find  it  best  to  choose  a  subject  with  a  very  definite 
personality,  either  queer,  or  dainty,  or  awkward,  for  example. 
If  you  catch  your  portrait  as  the  subject  is  doing  some  char- 
acteristic thing,  so  much  the  better.  Read  the  following 
themes  by  way  of  suggestion. 

THE  WASHERWOMAN'S   BOY 

He  is  a  tall,  pale-faced  boy.  His  brown  eyes  look  too  large  for 
his  slender  puny  face.  His  head  is  pointed,  and  covered  with  long 
black  hair,  stringing  into  his  eyes.  He  wears  a  man's  hat  much  too 
large  for  him,  and  a  shaggy  brown  coat  many  years  old,  with  sleeves 
so  short  that  his  bony  hands  stand  out  from  them,  very  conspicuous. 
His  trousers  are  meant  to  be  long  ones,  but  he  has  outgrown  them 
until  they  reach  his  shoe  tops.  He  wears  a  pair  of  his  mother's  old 
shoes  which  are  long  and  narrow  and  have  very  high  heels.  Every 
day,  counting  Sundays,  you  can  see  him  going  along  playing  train 
with  the  baby  buggy,  which  he  is  pushing  full  of  clothes. 


INTEREST  1 1 1 

BILL  JOHNSON,  A  POLITICAL  BOSS 
Bill  Johnson  bought  more  votes  than  any  other  political  boss  in 
town.  He  wore  a  silk  hat  which  covered  a  mass  of  black  curly  hair. 
His  head  was  of  average  size.  He  had  bleary  blue  eyes,  a  long 
hooked  nose,  and  a  firm-set  mouth,  in  one  corner  of  which  was 
cocked  a  cigar.  He  had  on  a  gray  suit,  and  a  stiff  shirt  in  which 
was  a  diamond  stud.  Johnson  was  handing  to  a  lean,  hawk-eyed 
old  man  a  two-dollar  bill. 

EXERCISE  94  —  Written 

CHOOSING   AND   ARRANGING   DETAILS   FOR   CLEAR 
EXPLANATION 

In  as  clear  a  way  as  possible  explain  one  of  these  things, 
being  especially  careful  about  the  order  of  details  : 

1.  Why  the  moon  has  phases. 

2.  How  to  serve  in  tennis. 

3.  How  to  pitch  a  curve  in  baseball. 

4.  How  to  approach  or  putt  in  golf. 

5.  How  to  train  a  dog. 

6.  How  to  make  a  house-book  for  a  child. 

7.  How  to  broil  a  steak. 

8.  Why  yeast  raises  dough. 

9.  How  to  cut  out  dress  goods  by  a  pattern. 

10.  How  to  use  wild  flowers  in  the  house. 

11.  How  to  passe-partout  pictures. 

12.  How  to  make  silhouettes. 


Effective  argument,  as  has  already  been  shown  (page  45), 
demands  that  there  be  a  clear  statement  of  the  topic.  This 
topic  alone  will  not  suffice,  however ;  it  must  be  supported 
by  facts,  facts  so  selected  and  so  ordered  as  to  constitute  proof. 
The  first  point  for  one  to  note  is  that  mere  assertion  is  not 
proof.  The  assertion  may  be  true  ;  but  it  .must  be  fortified 
with  facts,  referred  to  some  axiom,  or  justified  by  authority. 


112  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

Unless  the  argument  is  to  be  exhaustive,  only  the  strongest 
facts  at  command  will  be  used.  These  should  be  arranged  so 
as  to  support  each  other  and  the  main  proposition,  and  pre- 
sented with  sincerity  and  interest.  Success  is  likely  to  follow 
if  the  writer  possesses  the  facts,  thoroughly  believes  in  them, 
and  sincerely  tries  to  establish  his  proposition. 

EXERCISE  95  —  Oral 
CHOOSING  AND  ARRANGING   DETAILS   IN  ARGUMENT 

a.  Jot  down  all  the  arguments  that  occur  to  you  for  or 
against  one  of  the  following  propositions.  Select  the  strongest 
and  arrange  them  so  that,  when  called  on,  you  can  present 
your  side  convincingly. 

1 .  The  cost  and  style  of  commencement  dresses  should  be 
regulated  by  the  school  authorities. 

2.  Contests  between  schools  should  be  in  branches  of  study 
as  well  as  in  athletics. 

3 .  Public  debates  between  high  schools  should  be  encouraged. 

4.  An  unpopular  teacher,  however  good,  should  be  removed. 

5.  Arctic  explorations  should  be  discouraged. 

6.  The  honor  system  in  examinations  should  be  adopted 
in  our  school. 

I?.  Make  notes  of  the  points  made  by  each  one  reciting. 
Select  one  set  that  seems  to  lead  to  an  untenable  conclusion. 
After  finding  where  the  faults  are,  prepare  to  present  a  reply 
in  a  sincere,  courteous,  orderly  way. 

D.    PROPORTION 

Even  when  we  ha\-c  chosen  the  details  and  arranged  them 
in  some  natural  order,  we  may  make  the  mistake  of  dwelling 
too  long  on  one  part  and  condensing  another  part  too  much. 


INTEREST  1 1 3 

Especially  in  telling  a  story  we  draw  out  the  beginning,  and 
then,  perhaps  for  lack  of  time,  hurry  through  the  end,  which 
is,  or  ought  to  be,  the  most  interesting  part.  If  we  saw  a 
building  with  a  stately  and  immense  entrance  hall  leading 
into  nothing  but  a  cramped  little  kitchen,  we  should  say  that 
it  was  all  out  of  proportion.  Compositions  are  sometimes 
out  of  proportion  in  a  similar  way. 

EXERCISE  96  —  Written 
IMPROVING  PROPORTION 

Read  over  your  theme  on  "A  Day  of  My  Life"  (Exer- 
cise 87),  and  see  whether  you  have  told  things  in  the  right 
proportion,  giving  the  largest  number  of  details  about  the 
most  interesting  events.    If  not,  rewrite  the  theme. 

EXERCISE  97  —  Written 

TEST  THEME  FOR  CHOICE  AND   ARRANGEMENT  OF 
DETAILS   AND   FOR  PROPORTION 

Tell  in  the  most  interesting  way  possible  the  story  of  "  The 
First  Christmas  I  Remember,"  paying  attention  to  choice  and 
arrangement  of  details,  and  to  proportion.  Do  not  be  satisfied 
with  any  words  but  those  that  express  your  meaning  exactly. 
Be  careful  about  paragraphing.  If  you  prefer,  you  may  use 
one  of  the  following  topics  instead  : 

1.  Grandma's  Christmas.  7.   Lost. 

2.  Helping  Santa  Claus.  8.  An  Accident. 

3.  A  Christmas  Shopping  Trip.  9.  A  New  Year's  Resolution. 

4.  A  Night  Ride.  10.  Getting  a  Photograph  of  — — . 

5.  Caught  in  a  Storm.  11.  A  Spoiled  Holiday. 

6.  My  First  Adventure.  12.   Getting  around  an  Objection. 


114  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

Read  the  following  theme  by  way  of  suggestion : 

MV   IDEAL  CHRISTMAS 

It  was  the  afternoon  before  Christmas  and  everybody  was  in  a 
hurry.  Papa  was  hitching  up  the  black  team  to  the  sleigh,  I  was 
putting  on  my  overcoat,  mamma  was  wrapping  up  the  baby,  while 
Fred  was  tugging  at  his  overshoes. 

"  Here  's  the  sleigh-bell,"  said  Fred  as  he  pulled  on  his  second 
overshoe. 

"And  there's  papa  calling  for  us,"'  said  I  as  I  ran  out,  jumped 
into  the  sleigh,  and  took  the  reins. 

Papa  helped  mamma  and  the  baby  in,  and  Fred  climbed  in  and 
got  under  the  laprobe,  and  you  may  be  sure  I  did  the  same  when 
papa  took  the  reins,  —  because  it  was  cold.  It  was  four  miles  to 
grandma's,  but  we  had  a  fast  pair  of  horses  and  an  easy-running 
sleigh,  and  maybe  we  didn't  fly!  It  seemed  as  if  we  had  just 
started  when  papa  said  "  Whoa !  "  and  jumped  out.  He  helped 
mamma  and  the  baby  out,  while  Fred  and  I  jumped  out  and  tied 
the  horses. 

Grandma  came  running  out  and  told  us  to  come  into  the  house 
quick  or  we  should  freeze.  Aunt  Maggie  was  getting  supper,  and 
while  we  were  warming  ourselves,  Uncle  Ned  ran  out  and  put  up 
the  horses  and  fed  them. 

Fred  and  I  went  upstairs  and  played  horse  and  train  till  supper 
time.  While  we  were  upstairs  I  thought  I  heard  some  one  hammer- 
ing downstairs,  and  told  Fred  we  had  better  go  down  and  see  what 
they  were  about ;  but  Fred  said  that  they  were  only  cracking  hickory- 
nuts  for  a  cake  or  something,  and  if  we  went  down  we  should  only 
get  the  job,  which  he  did  n't  like.  The  hammering  stopped  and  we 
went  on  playing.  In  about  half  an  hour  Aunt  Maggie  called  us 
down  to  supper. 

After  supper  some  one  said,  "All  ready  for  the  Christmas  tree !  " 
Fred  and  I  looked  at  each  other  for  about  a  second  and  then  made 
a  run  for  the  parlor.  I  beat.  When  I  opened  the  door,  there  stood 
a  large  Christmas  tree,  about  nine  feet  high.  The  room  was  all 
lighted  up  with  candles  which  were  on  the  tree.  Around  the  tree 
were  wagons,  rocking-horses,  heavy  trains  of  cars,  and  large,  heavy 
sets  of  books,  which  were  too  heavy  for  the  branches.  On  the  tree 
were  light  toys,  air-guns,  a  shot-gun,  some  light  books,  a  knife  or 


INTEREST  1 1 5 

two,  and  about  a  number-four  sack  full  of  candy  and  nuts  for  each 
one.  All  of  this  I  saw  in  a  moment.  Then  Fred  and  the  others 
came  in,  but  Uncle  Ned  was  not  with  them.  I  asked  where  Uncle 
Ned  was,  and  papa  said  he  thought  he  was  feeding  the  horses,  but 
I  knew  he  was  not  and  thought  that  he  was  playing  Santa  Claus ; 
but  I  kept  my  thoughts  to  myself. 

All  at  once  Santa  Claus  slipped  out  from  a  little  nook  behind 
the  tree  and  began  giving  out  the  presents.  When  he  was  through 
giving  out  the  presents  he  took  hold  of  my  hand  and  danced 
around  the  tree.  While  we  were  dancing  his  beard  fell  off,  and 
then  everybody  shouted  "  Uncle  Ned  !  "  "  Uncle  Ned  !  "  He  ran 
out  and  pulled  off  his  coat  and  came  back  in  again. 

The  next  day  we  got  up  early  to  look  in  our  stockings,  but  they 
were  empty.  We  went  down  to  breakfast  with  sad  hearts,  but  when 
we  turned  over  our  plates  to  eat,  there  under  each  of  our  plates  was 
a  round  silver  dollar.  After  breakfast  Aunt  Maggie  telephoned 
over  to  Aunt  Mary's  and  Aunt  Helen's  and  told  them  to  come  over 
for  dinner,  and  not  to  forget  their  children,  because  Fred  and  I 
were  there.  About  nine  o'clock  they  came.  We  —  Fred  and  I  and 
our  cousins  —  made  snow  men,  had  snow  fights,  and  we  tried  to 
make  snow  houses,  but  could  n't. 

At  one  o'clock  we  had  dinner,  and  it  was  such  a  dinner  !  —  turkey, 
dressing,  puddings,  not  to  count  the  cakes,  pies,  cookies,  and  all  the 
rest  of  the  good  things.  After  dinner  some  of  the  children  went 
out  and  played  in  the  snow,  but  I  was  too  full  to  do  that.  I  finished 
eating  about  ten  minutes  after  the  rest  of  the  children.  When  I 
had  finished  I  went  into  the  parlor  and  lay  down  under  the  Christ- 
mas tree  on  a  large  white  bear's  skin  and  went  to  sleep.  I  don't 
know  how  long  I  slept,  but  when  I  woke  up  I  heard  the  knives 
and  forks  clattering  as  the  grown-ups  tried  to  cut  a  leg  off  the  turkey, 
and  I  knew  it  must  be  almost  supper  time. 

E.  BEGINNINGS 
It  is  important  to  secure  your  reader's  attention  by  a  good 
beginning.  What  kind  of  beginning  do  you  like  best  t  As 
you  have  ah-eady  noticed  in  letter-writing,  it  is  generally  best 
to  begin  without  apology  or  explanation  or  the  needless  infor- 
mation that  you  are  going  to  begin.    This  is  especially  true  of 


ii6  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFflOX 

a  short  composition,  in  which  an  introduction  of  any  kind  is 
Hkely  to  be  out  of  proportion.  I f  you  had  a  whole  book  to  write, 
you  might  spare  a  few  pages  or  paragraphs  for  explanation, 
especially  if  the  times  or  scene  of  the  story  were  unfamiliar, 
as  in  Scott's  novels.  But  even  a  book  is  likely  to  attract  us  as 
more  interesting  if  it  introduces  us  at  once  to  the  characters 
and  the  situation  of  affairs,  and  hints  at  events  to  come. 

EXERCISE  98  —  0ml 
NOTICING  A   GOOD   liEGIXXIXG 

From  the  following  beginning  what  do  we  learn  of  each 
character }  of  the  kind  of  story  coming } 

"  Christmas  won't  be  Christmas  without  any  presents,"'  grumbled 
Jo,  lying  on  the  rug. 

"  It 's  so  dreadful  to  be  poor !  "  sighed  Meg,  looking  down  at  her 
old  dress. 

"  I  don't  think  it  "s  fair  for  some  girls  to  have  plenty  of  pretty 
things,  and  other  girls  nothing  at  all,"  added  little  Amy  with  an 
injured  sniff. 

"  We  've  got  father  and  mother  and  each  other,"'  said  Beth 
contentedly,  from  her  corner. 

Louisa  jVI.  Alcott,  "  Little  Women  "  ^ 

EXERCISE  99  —  Oral 
CRITICIZING   SOxME   GOOD   BEGINNINGS 
Why  are  the  following  first  paragraphs  good  ones } 

1.  It  was  sheep-shearing  time  in  Southern  California  ;  but  sheep- 
shearing  was  late  at  the  Senor  Moreno's.  The  Fates  had  seemed 
to  combine  to  put  it  off.  —  Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  "  Ramona  " 

2.  Every  morning  after  breakfast,  when  the  Imp  trotted  down 
the  steps  of  the  broad  hotel  piazza,  with  his  brown  legs  bare,  and 

1  Copyright,  1S96,  by  John  .S.  P.  Alcott. 


INTEREST  117 

his  big  iron  shovel  —  none  of  your  ten-cent  tin  scoops  for  him  — 
he  was  filled  anew  with  pity  for  Algernon  Marmaduke  Schuyler. 
Josephine  Daskam  Bacon,  "The  Imp  and  the  Angel" 

3.  The  weather  door  of  the  smoking-room  had  been  left  open  to 
the  North  Adantic  fog,  as  the  big  liner  rolled  and  lifted,  whistling 
to  warn  the  fishing-fleet. 

"  That  Cheyne  boy  's  the  biggest  nuisance  aboard,"  said  a  man 
in  a  frieze  overcoat,  shutting  the  door  with  a  bang.  "He  isn't 
wanted  here.    He  's  too  fresh." 

RUDYARD  Kipling,  "  Captains  Courageous  " 

4.  It  was  much  too  fine  a  night  to  think  of  going  to  bed  at  once, 
and  so,  although  the  witching  hour  of  nine  p.m.  had  struck,  Edward 
and  I  were  still  leaning  out  of  the  open  window  in  our  night  shirts, 
watching  the  play  of  the  cedar-branch  shadows  on  the  moonlit 
lawn,  and  planning  schemes  of  fresh  deviltry  for  the  sunshiny 
morrow. 

Kenneth  Grahame,  The  Burglars,  in  "  The  Golden  Age  " 

EXERCISE  100  — Oral 
CRITICIZING   BEGINNINGS   OF  THEMES 

Discuss  in  class  the  beginnings  of  themes  handed  in  for 
Exercise  94.    Which  seems  to  you  the  best  ? 

EXERCISE  101  —  Written 
WRITING   DIFFERENT   BEGINNINGS 

Write  the  introductory  sentences  of  two  stories,  one  to  be  an 
exciting  adventure,  the  other  a  jolly  incident  of  school  life. 

r.    ENDINGS 

For  the  conclusion  or  ending  the  most  important  advice  is, 
"  Stop  when  you  have  finished."  Do  not  leave  anything 
tacked  on  or  dangling.    If  you  are  writing  a  story,  round  out 


Ii8  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

the  adventure  ;  if  you  are  writing  a  description,  leave  the  most 
important  detail  or  the  general  impression  in  the  reader's 
mind  ;  if  you  are  explaining  something,  perhaps  you  will 
need  to  sum  up  your  points. 

EXERCISE  102  —  Oral  and  Written 
CRITICIZING   ENDINGS   OF   THEMES 

Look  over  the  endings  of  your  last  three  themes  and  try 
to  improve  them  —  unless  they  need  no  improvement. 

G.   CLIMAX 

A  few  considerations  are  of  special  importance  in  telling 
stories.  If  you  wish  to  hold  your  hearer's  attention,  you  know 
that  you  must  not  spoil  the  point  by  telling  it  too  soon.  Have 
you  ever  listened  to  a  story-teller  who  turned  the  joke  back- 
wards, or  left  out  some  important  fact  and  had  to  go  back  to 
supply  it,  or  after  telling  the  story  pretty  well  added  some 
unnecessary  information  or  repeated  the  best  part  until  you 
were  tired  of  it  ^  In  writing,  where  we  have  time  to  plan, 
there  is  no  excuse  for  spoiling  the  point  or  climax  in  any 
of  these  ways. 

By  the  climax  of  a  story  we  mean  the  point  at  which  we 
see  pretty  clearly  how  ever)'thing  will  end  —  the  height  of  the 
story.  Sometimes  the  climax  or  height  of  interest  comes 
before  the  climax  of  the  story,  so  that  although  we  do  not 
know  how  "it  turns  out,"  we  do  not  care.  Have  you  ever 
read  a  book  of  this  kind  .?  In  such  short  stories  as  you  must 
write,  it  is  especially  important  to  have  the  climax  at  the  very 
end,  or  almost  there,  and  make  ever)'thing  lead  up  to  this. 
Of  course,  not  all  accounts  of  events  can  be  called  stories 
in  the  sense  that  they  have  a  real  climax  ;  your  account  of 


INTEREST  119 

"A  Day  of  My  Life  "  may  have  been  merely  a  string  of  inci- 
dents meant  to  give  a  general  impression.  In  this  respect  it 
was,  then,  more  like  a  description  than  a  story.  If  you  took 
any  one  of  the  incidents,  however,  and  told  it  in  detail,  you 
would  find  that  it  had,  or  should  have,  a  climax.  You  must 
make  the  most  of  your  climax  by  preparing  for  it  carefully, 
telling  it  well,  and  not  spoiling  it  afterwards  ;  in  this  way 
you  are  likely  to  be  interesting. 


EXERCISE  103  —  Oral 
STUDYING   A   CLIMAX   AND   THE   APPROACH   TO   IT 

Study  this  poem  of  Whittier's.  Where  is  the  climax .? 
What  details  are  given  to  lead  to  this  .?  Why  so  many .?  Are 
they  well  arranged  ? 

TELLING   THE   BEES 

[According  to  an  old  custom,  the  bees  were  told  of  the  death  of  a  member  of  the 

family  and  their  hives  were  draped  in  mourning,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from 

seeking  a  new  home.] 

Here  is  the  place ;   right  over  the  hill 

Runs  the  path  I  took ; 
You  can  see  the  gap  in  the  old  wall  still. 

And  the  stepping  stones  in  the  shallow  brook. 

There  is  the  house,  with  the  gate  red-barred, 

And  the  poplars  tall ; 
And  the  barn's  brown  length,  and  the  cattle-yard, 

And  the  white  horns  tossing  above  the  wall. 

There  are  the  beehives  ranged  in  the  sun ; 

And  down  by  the  brink 
Of  the  brook  are  her  poor  flowers,  weed-o'erruh, 

Pansy  and  daffodil,  rose  and  pink. 


I20  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

A  year  has  gone,  as  the  tortoise  goes, 

Heavy  and  slow  : 
And  the  same  rose  blows,  and  the  same  sun  glows, 

And  the  same  brook  sings  of  a  year  ago. 

There's  the  same  sweet  clovcr-smcU  in  the  breeze; 

And  the  June  sun  warm 
Tangles  his  wings  of  fire  in  the  trees, 

Setting,  as  then,  over  Fernside  farm. 

I  mind  me  how  with  a  lover's  care 

From  my  Sunday  coat 
I  brushed  off  the  burrs,  and  smoothed  my  hair 

And  cooled  at  the  brookside  my  brow  and  throat. 

Since  we  parted  a  month  had  passed, 

To  love,  a  year  ; 
Down  through  the  beeches  I  looked  at  last 

On  the  little  red  gate  and  the  well-sweep  near. 

I  can  see  it  all  now,  —  the  slantwise  rain 

Of  light  through  the  leaves, 
The  sundown's  blaze  on  her  window-pane. 

The  bloom  of  her  roses  under  the  eaves. 

Just  the  same  as  a  month  before,  — 

The  house  and  tHe  trees, 
The  barn's  brown  gable,  the  vine  by  the  door, — 

Nothing  changed  but  the  hive  of  bees. 

Before  them,  under  the  garden  wall. 

Forward  and  back. 
Went  drearily  singing  the  chore-girl  small, 

Draping  each  hive  with  a  shred  of  black. 

Trembling,  I  listened  :  the  summer  sun 

Had  the  chill  of  snow  ; 
For  I  knew  she  was  telling  the  bees  of  one 

Gone  on  the  journey  we  all  must  go. 


INTEREST  121 

Then  I  said  to  myself,  "  My  Mary  weeps 

For  the  dead  to-day  : 
Haply  her  blind  old  grandsire  sleeps 

The  fret  and  the  pain  of  his  age  away." 

But  her  dog  whined  low ;  on  the  doorway  sill, 

With  his  cane  to  his  chin, 
The  old  man  sat ;  and  the  chore-girl  still 

Sang  to  the  bees  stealing  out  and  in. 

And  the  song  she  was  singing  ever  since 

In  my  ear  sounds  on  :  — 
"  Stay  at  home,  pretty  bees,  fly  not  hence ; 

Mistress  Mary  is  dead  and  gone." 

EXERCISE  104  -  Oral 

CRITICIZING   THEMES   FOR   ALL   POINTS   CONNECTED 
WITH    INTEREST 

What  is  the  cHmax  of  the  following  theme  }  Is  the  com- 
position well  planned  as  to  introduction,  climax,  ending,  pro- 
portion, choice  and  arrangement  of  details  }  Comment  on 
the  choice  of  words. 

WAVES 

I  was  about  half  way  home  from  the  Snow  Islands.  The  day  was 
very  windy  and  rather  too  warm.  From  the  hot  deck  of  a  small, 
side-wheel  steamer  I  could  see  the  white-caps  dancing  for  miles 
around  us.  One  by  one  the  people  crowded  on  the  deck  became 
sea-sick  and  hastily  departed,  until  only  a  few  were  left,  sitting 
together  near  the  stern.  Finally  they  too  went  away.  I  was  now 
the  only  one  left  on  deck.  As  the  wind  had  become  stronger,  I 
was  in  constant  danger  of  being  soaked. 

In  the  prow  of  the  boat  the  sides  were  high,  of  course,  and  made 
a  little  corner.  Here  I  snuggled  down  on  the  floor.  The  waves 
dashed  over  the  prow  of  the  boat,  but  all  I  got  was  a  little  spray. 
Presently  three  gay  young  girls  and  one  young  man  came  to  the 


122  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

prow  end  of  the  deck.  While  they  were  standing  near  the  side,  an 
immense  wave  sprang  over  the  deck  and  almost  swallowed  them. 
Two  caps  escaped  over  the  side  of  the  boat  and  had  a  bumpety  ride 
on  the  waves.  The  young  people  were  all  dripping  wet,  and  as  they 
had  been  on  only  a  day's  trip,  they  had  no  stateroom ;  so  there 
they  stayed. 

I  laughed  till  I  almost  cried ;  but  the  laugh  was  soon  to  turn.  I 
thought  I  was  safe,  but  before  I  was  through  laughing  a  huge  wave 
rolled  me  over  and  over  down  the  deck,  and  I  was  fully  as  wet  as 
the  others.  When  they  had  finished  laughing  at  me,  we  made 
friends,  and  had  a  jolly  time  together.  W'e  even  tried  to  get  rolled 
over  by  the  waves. 

EXERCISE  105  —  Oral 
STUDYING  CLIMAXES 

The  following  are  climaxes  of  stories.  \\'hat  questions  do 
they  suggest  as  to  the  events  that  led  to  them  1  \Vhat  will 
need  to  be  finished  in  the  conclusion  .'' 

1.  He  was  raising  his  arm  and  his  voice,  and  plainly  meant  to 
lead  a  charge.  But  just  then  —  crack  !  crack !  crack  !  —  three  mus- 
ket shots  flashed  out  of  the  thicket.  Merry  tumbled  head-foremost 
into  the  excavation ;  the  man  with  the  bandage  spun  round  like  a 
teetotum,  and  fell  all  his  length  upon  his  side,  where  he  lay  dead, 
but  still  twitching ;  and  the  other  three  turned  and  ran  for  it  with 
all  their  might.  —  Stevexsox,  "  Treasure  Island  " 

2.  And  now  he  feels  the  bottom  ; 

Now  on  dry  earth  he  stands ; 
Now  round  him  throng  the  Fathers, 

To  press  his  gory  hands ; 
And  now  with  shouts  and  clapping 

And  noise  of  weeping  loud. 
He  enters  through  the  River-Gate 

Borne  by  the  joyous  crowd. 

Macaulay,  "  Horatius  at  the  Bridge  " 


INTEREST  123 

3.  The  peddler  had  never  pretended  to  more  courage  than  befits  a 
man  of  peaceable  occupation,  nor  could  he  account  for  his  valour 
in  this  awful  emergency.  Certain  it  is,  however,  that  he  rushed 
forward,  prostrated  a  sturdy  Irishman  with  the  butt-end  of  his  whip, 
and  found  —  not  indeed  hanging  on  the  St.  Michael's  pear-tree,  but 
trembling  beneath  it,  with  a  halter  round  his  neck  —  the  old,  iden- 
tical Mr.  Higginbotham. 

Hawthorne,  "  Mr.  Higginbotham's  Catastrophe  " 


EXERCISE  106  —  Written  and  Oral 
WRITING   CLIMAXES   AND    DEFENDING   THEM 

Bring  to  class  a  paragraph  or  sentence  giving  the  chmax 
of  a  stony\  Be  ready  to  answer  the  questions  which  it 
suggests  to  your  classmates. 

EXERCISE  107  —  Written 
WRITING   A   STORY   AROUND   A   CLIMAX 

Write  a  story  including  the  climax  written  by  yourself  or 
any  one  of  your  classmates.  Be  sure  to  prepare  for  the 
climax  carefully.  Think  out  the  whole  story  definitely  be- 
fore beginning  to  write,  and  sincerely  try  to  interest  the 
other  members  of  the  class. 

//.  DEVICES    FOR   INTEREST 

L  Conversation 

You  have  undoubtedly  already  discovered  that  much  inter- 
est is  often  added  to  a  story  by  telling  part  of  it  in  the  form 
of  conversation.  This  conversation  may  either  tell  some 
things  that  happened,  or  reveal  character,  or  do  both.  For 
which  purpose  have  you  generally  used  it .'' 


1J4  IIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  108  —  Oral  and  Written 
WRITING   CONVERSATION   FOR   INTEREST 

Read  the  following  fragment,  tell  what  the  conversation 
does  for  it,  and  then  finish  the  theme  in  the  same  spirit. 

WHEN  WILLIAM  WENT  TO  THE  CIRCUS 

"  Hello,  goin'  to  the  circus?  " 

A  short,  freckle-faced  boy  of  ten  stood  beside  a  rather  lean,  lanky 
youth  who  had  reached  the  advanced  age  of  twelve.  The  speaker 
was  the  short  boy,  who  somehow  bore  up  under  the  delightful 
name  Jonathan  Nathaniel  Wentworth.  His  nickname  was,  as  his 
size  might  suggest,  "  Shorty."  The  other  youth  was  Will  Jones, 
more  commonly  known  as  Bill. 

"  Perhaps,"  was  the  response. 

They  were  standing  in  front  of  a  large  poster,  which  let  passers- 
by  know  that 

"  Barlow's  Great  Aggregation  and  Congregation  of  World- 
renowned  Acrobats  and  Performers  in  general  will  appear  in  Smith- 
ville  July  the  25th.  Two  performances,  rain  or  shine.  Big  Free 
Parade.  Greatest  Collection  of  Animals  ever  seen  in  any  Zoo  or 
Circus  " ;  and  all  this  was  to  be  seen  for  "  the  paltry  sum  of  fifty 
cents ;   children,  half-price." 

Now,  sad  to  relate.  Will  had  to  go  and  spend  a  week  with  an 
aunt  living  in  a  litdetown  about  ten  miles  from  Smithville.  This 
visit  had  been  planned  so  he  should  not  be  allowed  to  witness  the 
demoralizing  circus.  He  did  not  want  any  of  the  boys  to  know  this 
fact,  because  they  would  tease  him  about  not  being  able  to  go ;  so 
he  only  said  "  Perhaps." 

EXERCISE  109  -  Written 
TELLING  A   STORV   IN.  CONVERSATION 

Write  a  natural  conversation  between  two  boys  or  two  girls, 
which  shall  reveal  some  incident  that  has  happened  on  the 
playground  or  in  school.    Only  one  of  them  knows  about  it. 


INTEREST  125 

EXERCISE  110  — Written 
REVEALING   CHARACTER   IN   CONVERSATION 

Write  a  conversation  between  the  same  two  people  about 
the  same  incident  as  in  Exercise  109,  but  assuming  that  they 
both  know  what  has  happened.  This  conversation  suggests 
what  the  incident  was,  and  shows  the  character  of  each  boy 
or  girl  in  the  way  in  which  he  talks  about  it.  Perhaps  one  boy 
is  a  sneak  or  one  girl  a  scold.    Imagine  them  very  distinctly. 

EXERCISE  111  — Written 

FINDING   DEFINITE   WORDS   FOR   INTRODUCING 
CONVERSATION 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  words  possible  to  use  in  place  of  said. 
Which  give  you  the  clearest  picture  of  the  manner  of  saying  ? 
Which  mean  to  say  loudly  ?  to  say  softly  ? 

EXERCISE  112  —  Written 
REVEALING   CHARACTER   IN   CONVERSATION 

Write  one  of  the  following  conversations  to  show  character, 
varying  the  explanatory  words,  as  suggested  in  Exercise  iii  : 

1.  A  hard-working  but  cheery  washerwoman  with  her  grocer,  while 
she  makes  a  small  purchase. 

2.  A  good-natured  but  provokingly  careless  small  boy  with  his  older 
sister,  whose  pet  has  just  been  injured  through  his  carelessness. 

3.  An  inquisitive  small  boy  on  the  train  with  his  mother,  who  is  a 
lady  and  understands  him  pretty  well. 

4.  The  same  small  boy  with  his  mother,  who  is  a  good-natured,  over- 
indulgent  proud  parent. 

5.  A  conceited  bully  on  the  playground  with  a  new  boy  who  is  brave 
and  quick-witted. 


126  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

6.  A  very  stupid  and  flighty,  wealthy  woman  with  a  patient  and 
polite  ticket-agent. 

7.  A  shy  country  girl  with  her  talkative  and  enthusiastic  city  cousin, 
who  has  come  to  spend  a  month  and  is  unpacking  her  trunk. 

8.  An  older  brother  with  Bobbie,  a  rather  stupid  fifth-grade  boy, 
who  is  puzzled  over  a  problem  in  arithmetic. 

9.  Miss  Prisms  with  her  athletic  brother  at  an  art  exhibit. 

10.  A  snob  with  a  quick-witted  young  gentleman  whom  he  has  mis- 
taken for  a  chauffeur. 


EXERCISE  113  —  Written 

SHOWING   CHARACTER  AND   EVENTS  THROUGH 
CONVERSATION 

Give  one  side  of  a  telephone  conversation,  showing  some- 
thing that  has  happened,  and  also  the  character  of  the  speaker. 
If  possible,  indicate  also  the  character  of  the  person  at  the 
other  end  of  the  line.  Or  write  a  monologue,  that  is,  a  one- 
sided conversation  showing  events  and  character.  What  is 
suggested  of  the  character  and  circumstances  by  the  remarks 
of  the  person  quoted  below }    Finish  his  remarks  after  dinner. 

"  Oh,  mamma,  please  may  I  lick  that  cake  pan  ?  No,  I  won't 
spoil  my  dinner.  Um-m-m,  this  stuff 's  good.  Oh,  do  let  me  have 
some  of  that  dressing.  Yes,  I  will,  too,  eat  some  at  dinner;  you 
just  wait  and  see  if  I  don't.  My,  I  wish  Thanksgiving  Day  would 
come  every  day.  Want  some  wood  ?  Well,  give  me  a  piece  of  cake 
to  eat  on  the  way,  and  I  '11  get  you  some.  No,  I  won't  either  get 
dust  on  it.  I  "11  cram  it  in  my  mouth  like  this.  See?  Why,  my 
mouth  is  big ;  it  will  hold  twice  that  much.  .  .  .  Here  's  your  wood ! 
My,  those  baked  apples  look  good.  Guess  I  '11  eat  one.  Ha  !  Ha ! 
You  think  there  isn't  room  left  for  dinner,  do  you?  If  you  think 
I  've  eaten  lots  now,  wait  till  you  see  what  I  '11  eat  for  dinner.  I  'm 
going  to  tell  papa  to  carve  mc  a  great  big  piece  of  turkey !  " 


INTEREST  127 

EXERCISE  114  —  Written 
EXPLAINING  THROUGH   CONVERSATION 

Conversation  may  be  used  to  make  an  explanation  inter- 
esting. In  the  form  of  a  conversation  tell  how  to  make  or 
do  or  play  something.  Be  sure  that  in  trying  to  gain  in- 
terest you  do  not  introduce  so  much  outside  matter  that  you 
blur  the  clearness  of  the  explanation.  Read  the  following 
composition  : 

HOW   TO   MAKE   A    HANDKERCHIEF   CASE 

"  Oh,  Ruth,  I  'm  having  the  most  trouble !  I  can't  find  anything 
to  give  Mabel  Channing  for  Christmas.  I  've  given  her  everything 
I  can  think  of,  it  seems  to  me,  and  I  've  almost  worn  myself  out 
trying  to  think  of  something  else." 

"  If  you  have  given  her  everything,  I  don't  see  how  I  can  help 
you.  But  did  you  ever  give  her  a  handkerchief  case?  I  gave  one 
to  one  of  mamma's  friends  last  year,  and  she  was  delighted 
with  it." 

"  Oh,  why  did  n't  I  think  of  that !  That 's  the  very  thing  I  wanted. 
How  is  it  made.-"    Is  it  hard,  and  does  it  take  long?  " 

"  No,  it  is  very  simple,  and  very  quickly  made  ;  and  another  good 
thing  about  it  —  it  is  very  inexpensive." 

"  Hurry  up,  for  I  can't  wait  another  minute !  " 

"  Well,  first  cut  two  squares  of  stiff  cardboard,  about  five  inches 
square,  and  be  sure  to  have  them  exactly  the  same  size.  Cover  these 
with  cotton  batting.  This  should  be  drawn  tighdy  over  the  card- 
board and  sewed  so  that  there  will  be  no  wrinkles  in  it.  Cover  one 
side  of  each  of  these  with  silk,  overlapping  it  on  the  other  side  and 
sewing  it  fast.  To  finish  these  pieces,  cover  the  remaining  side  with 
wide  ribbon,  and  button-hole  stitch  the  whole  around  the  edges 
with  silk  floss." 

"  But  I  don't  see  where  the  handkerchief  is  to  go." 

"  Don't  be  impatient  and  you  '11  soon  know.  You  've  plenty  of 
time  to  make  a  dozen  cases  before  Christmas.  Next  get  some 
elastic  about  one  inch  wide  and  eight  inches  long,  cover  this  with 


128  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

ribbon  and  fasten  the  ends  together,  and  tic  a  bow  of  the  ribbon 
over  the  fastening.  Put  the  two  pieces  of  the  case,  ribbon  sides 
out,  together,  and  sHp  the  elastic  bands  over  them,  and  then  it  is 
ready  for  the  folded  handkerchief.  Is  there  anything  you  don't 
understand  about  it  ?  " 

"No,  1  don't  think  there  is  —  only,  is  the  bow  on  the  elastic 
made  so  that  it  can  be  untied  when  the  case  is  to  be  opened,  or  is 
it  sewed  on  tight  ?    And  what  color  is  the  case  ?  " 

"  It  is  sewed  on  tight,  and  the  band  is  to  be  slipped  off.  The 
batting  of  the  one  I  made  was  pink,  the  silk  white,  and  the  ribbon 
was  white  with  pink  flowers  in  it.  It  was  very  pretty,  but  I  think 
light  blue  would  be  just  as  dainty  —  or  lavender,  or  pale  green.  Do 
you  think  you  can  make  one  now?  " 

"  Yes,  and  I  'm  going  to  hurry  home  and  begin  it.  Thank  you 
very  much,  Ruth,  for  helping  me  out  of  my  trouble." 

EXERCISE  115— Written 
DRAMATIZING   AN   INCIDENT 

Tell  some  incident  or  adventure  entirely  by  means  of  con- 
versation. You  may  arrange  this  as  plays  are  printed. ^  If 
necessary,  write  a  brief  introduction  giving  the  time  and  place 
and  persons. 

II.  Comparison 

As  conversation  is  a  device  for  securing  interest,  princi- 
pally in  story-telling,  so  comparisons  are  a  device  for  securing 
interest  —  along  with  some  other  things  —  principally  in  de- 
scription. We  all  use  comparisons  to  make  our  meaning 
clear  :  "  It  is  as  dark  as  pitch,"  "  She  is  as  pretty  as  a  picture," 
'"  His  cheeks  were  like  apples."  Silvery  hair  ;  dog-\\]^it  devo- 
tion, putting  tJie  cart  before  the  horse,  a  cold  glance,  a  loarm 
heart,  —  many,  many  expressions  in  everyday  use  are  com- 
parisons, sometimes   clearly  stated,  sometimes  only  hinted. 

1  Editions  of  modern  plays  will  illustrate  the  use  of  helpful  stage-directions. 


INTEREST  129 

A  sincere,  definite  comparison  of  our  own,  made  not  for  its 
own  sake  but  to  illustrate  the  point,  helps  even  more  than 
these  rather  worn-out  phrases  to  interest  and  enlighten 
our  readers. 

EXERCISE  116  — Oral  and  Written 
NOTICING   COMPARISON   THAT   HELPS    INTEREST 

a.  Find  all  the  comparisons,  both  directly  expressed  and 
implied,  in  Cobb's  account  of  the  approach  of  the  mob 
(pages  72-74).  Note  also  the  following  comparisons  taken 
from  pupils'  compositions.    Are  they  appropriate .''  sincere .-' 

The  trees  are  full  of  grackles,  who  are  singing  a  squeaky 
song  like  the  sound  made  by  a  rusty  pair  of  scissors  being 
opened   and   shut. 

Over  my  head  in  the  attic  I  heard  the  pitter-patter  of  little  mice's 
feet,  running  as  if  the  mice  were  playing  blackman. 

The  sharp  whizzing  wind  whirling  and  whistling  around  the 
corner  of  the  house  sounded  like  a  saw  mill,  which  gives  a  stinging 
deep  sound  and  then  dies  away  again  only  for  a  second. 

I?.  Write  five  or  more  comparisons  applicable  to  people 
you  know. 

III.   Suggestion 

Too  many  details  hinder  rather  than  help  interest.  The 
long-drawn-out  descriptions  by  Scott,  for  example,  are  some- 
times rather  tedious  ;  a  few  suggestive  words  are  often  all  that 
are  needed  to  call  up  a  vivid  picture.  Suggestion,  then,  no 
less  than  comparison,  is  a  valuable  device  for  those  who 
would  write  interesting  descriptions.  It  consists  in  choosing 
one  or  two  of  the  most  significant,  details  that  will  carry  with 
them  an  image  of  manv  more. 


I30  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  in  — Oral 
STUDYING   SUGGESTIVE   DESCRIPTIONS 

What  details  are  here  given,  and  what  do  they  suggest  ? 

Tommy  appeared  in  a  high  state  of  clean  collar,  and  escorted 
Nat  down  to  breakfast. 

Ned  Barker  was  like  a  thousand  other  boys  of  fourteen,  all  legs, 
blunder,  and  bluster. 

Rob  was  an  energetic  morsel  of  a  boy,  who  seemed  to  have 
discovered  the  secret  of  perpetual  motion,  for  he  was  never  still. 

EXERCISE  118— Written 

WRITING   Sl'GGESTIVE    DESCRIPTIONS 

Describe  ten  different  people  by  suggestion,  giving  one 
sentence  to  each. 

IV.  Contrast 

One  of  the  surest  ways  to  make  a  thing  clear  and  interest- 
ing-enough to  hold  attention  is  by  contrasting  it  sharply  with 
something  else.  The  word  is  wTitten  in  white  chalk  on  the 
d/ack-bosird  ;  a  bush  of  white  flowers  is  planted  against  a 
background  of  dark  green ;  a  compound  sentence  is  set  op- 
posite a  simple  one  ;  a  WTong  use  of  a  word  against  a  right 
use  —  that  it  may  be  seen  distinctly  with  the  physical  or  with 
the  mental  eye.  In  pictures  this  principle  of  contrast  is  often 
used  —  in  the  well-known  picture  of  "Dignity  and  Impu- 
dence," for  example,  where  the  quality  of  each  dog  is  made 
clearer  because  the  other  dog  is  strikingly  different. 

In  literature  the  intensity  of  a  feeling  or  an  impression  is 
often  given  by  contrast.  This  is  one  of  the  surest  ways  of 
holding  interest,  and  a  way  that  any  one  by  a  little  thought 
may  use  in  a  composition.    Indeed,  in  a  sense,  a  contrast  is 


INTEREST  131 

implied  whenever  you  describe  anything;  for  example,  "a 
gentlemanly,  courteous,  truthful  little  fellow  "  is  by  these 
very  words  set  opposite  to  a  selfish,  boorish  little  sneak, 
only  the  contrast  is  not  made  plain.  In  a  long  story  too 
we  might  find  two  kinds  of  people  introduced  as  "  foils  "  for 
one  another,  that  is,  each  to  show  the  other's  character  by 
contrast.  Sometimes,  too,  the  contrast  is  made  plain  by  actual 
statement  of  differences ;  sometimes  the  things  or  people  or 
feelings  or  scenes  are  merely  placed  side  by  side,  and  the 
reader  is  left  to  feel  the  contrast  for  himself. 

EXERCISE  119  — Oral 

SEEING  ELEMENTS   OF  CONTRAST 

Point  out  elements  of  contrast  that  might  be  used  in  de- 
scribing some  of  the  following  : 

1.  A  palace,  a  home,  a  hovel,  a  hotel  parlor,  a  summer  camp. 

2.  A  garden,  a  forest  nook. 

3.  A  city  street,  a  country  lane,  a  mountain  road. 

4.  A  summer  noon,  a  winter  night. 

5.  The  church  on  Sunday  morning,  the  church  at  midnight. 

6.  The  lake  in  summer  and  in  winter. 

7.  A  pine  and  an  oak. 

8.  A  blue-jay  and  a  wren. 

9.  A  New  England  farm  and  a  Dakota  wheat  farm. 

10.  "  Crabbed  age  and  youth  ''  (picture,  not  explanation). 

11.  Before  and  after  dinner. 

12.  A  house  building,  and  a  completed  home. 

13.  A  coward  a  hundred  miles  from  the  firing  line,  and  within  sound 
of  the  cannon. 

14.  A  loafer  on  the  street  corner,  and  a  great  physician  or  lawyer. 

15.  Conversation  of  a  cheerful  person  and  a  discontented  one  about 
some  event  or  condition  of  affairs. 

16.  Johnny's  remarks  when  Bill  had  the  mumps,  and  his  remarks 
when  he  had  them  himself. 


132  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

17.  Thoughts  of  the  person  in  the  automobile,  and  of  the  person 
who  was  nearly  run  over. 

18.  A  fireplace  and  a  radiator. 

19.  Indoors  and  out  on  a  stormy  night. 

20.  A  friend's  and  an  enemy's  description  of  a  political  candidate. 


EXERCISE  120  —  Written 
WRITING   TO   SHOW   CONTRASTS 

Write  on  one  or  more  of  the  topics  suggested  above,  as 
your  teacher  may  direct.  Be  sure  to  picture  the  details  which 
most  clearly  mark  differences.    Use  very  definite  words. 

V.  Variety 

A  succession  of  sentences  beginning  in  the  same  way 
(He  zuas,  or  //"(?  /lad,  or  Ther-e  7vcrc,  for  example),  or  a 
series  of  short  choppy  sentences,  or  the  repetition  of  a  word 
again  and  again  icoeTy,  or  said,  or  pretty,  or  the  name  of 
something,  for  instance),  —  any  and  all  of  these  monotonies 
make  compositions  less  interesting.  Variety  in  anything  is 
more  interesting  than  monotony.  The  securing  of  variety  is 
so  important  that  a  whole  chapter  of  this  book  is  devoted  to 
it ;  for  the  present,  watch  your  work  to  avoid  monotony  as 
much  as  you  can,  especially  in  the  form  of  your  sentences 
and  in  the  unnecessary  repetition  of  words. 

VI.   Brevity 

If  you  would  be  interesting,  avoid  unnecessary^  words. 
Never  sacrifice  clearness  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  never  use  six  words  where  one  would  do  ;  and  be 
sure  to  give  your  reader  credit  for  knowing  a  few  facts.  The 
boy  who  wrote,  "  The  jeweler's  window  was  full  of  bracelets  to 


INTEREST  133 

be  zvorn  on  the  afjii  and  rings  to  be  worn  on  the  fingers,"  must 
have  believed  his  readers  very  ignorant.  Only  those  that  know- 
little  attempt  to  say  all  that  they  know,  as  Mr.  Chadband  in 
Dickens's  "Bleak  House"  illustrates. ^ 


EXERCISE  121— Written 
REVISING   THEMES   FOR   BREVITY 

Look  over  your  last  two  themes,  and  strike  out  all  unneces- 
sary words  and  phrases,  or  condense  whole  clauses  and 
phrases  into  single  words  wherever  you  can  do  so  without 
sacrificing  the  meaning. 

EXERCISE  122  — Oral 

REVIEWING   THE   CHAPTER 

Look  over  this  chapter  and  tell  in  what  ways  you  have 
learned  to  give  interest  to  a  composition.  Which  two  ways 
do  you  consider  most  important  1 

EXERCISE  123  -  Written 
TEST  THEME   APPLYING   ALL   PRINCIPLES    STUDIED 

Write  a  theme,  either  narrative  or  descriptive,  on  any  sub- 
ject you  choose,  embodying  as  many  as  possible  of  all  the 
things  vou  have  learned  about  the  qualities  of  good  compo- 
sition. When  these  themes  are  read  in  class,  point  out  in  each 
other's  work  all  the  good  qualities  illustrated. 

1  Read  ''  Bleak  House,"  Chapter  XXV. 


134  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

RULES   AND   EXERCISES    IN    GOOD    FORM  ^ 

I.  Punctuation 

Exercise  A 

Explain  the  use  of  capitals  and  commas  in  this  stanza  and  be 
prepared  to  write  it  from  dictation : 

Long  as  thine  Art  shall  love  true  love, 
Long  as  thy  Science  truth  shall  know, 
Long  as  thine  Eagle  harms  no  Dove, 
Long  as  thy  Law  by  law  shall  grow, 
Long  as  thy  God  is  God  above. 
Thy  brother  every  man  below. 
So  long,  dear  Land  of  all  my  love, 
Thy  name  shall  shine,  thy  fame  shall  glow ! 

Sidney  Lanier 

Rule  23.    Use  a  co77iina  to  separate  the  name  of  a  person 
addressed  from  zuhat  is  said  to  him. 

Note  i.  If  the  name  breaks  into  a  sentence,  it  must  be  set  off 
on  both  sides  by  commas. 

Examples  :  I  wish,  John,  that  you  acted  on  your  beliefs. 

Oliver,  your  father  just  called  for  you. 

You  know  how  to  carry  a  message  to  Garcia,  young  man. 

Exercise  B 

Write  ten  sensible  sentences,  introducing  into  each  a  name  used 
in  direct  address.    Illustrate  the  three  positions  of  this  name. 

Note  2.    The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  addressed  is  sometimes 
followed  by  an  exclamation  mark  instead  of  by  a  comma. 

Exercise  C 

Explain  the  punctuation   of  the   following,   and   write  it  from 

dictation : 

Our  fathers'  God !  from  out  whose  hand 
The  centuries  fall  like  grains  of  sand, 

1  Continued  from  page  Si. 


INTEREST  13s 

We  meet  to-day,  united,  free, 
And  loyal  to  our  land  and  Thee, 
To  thank  Thee  for  the  era  done. 
And  trust  Thee  for  the  opening  one. 

Whittier,  "  Centennial  Hymn" 

Rule  24.  Use  commas  to  set  off  words  in  appositio7i,  unless 
these  are  very  closely  luiited  in  idea  with  the  zvords  to  which 
they  are  added. 

Examples  :  Longfellow,  the  author  of  many  familiar  foetus,  wrote  also 
some  pleasant  prose. 

'Y\\^  foet  LongfeUoio  was  much  interested  in  legends  and  myths  of  many 
lands. 

Exercise  D 

Write  from  dictation  these  sentences,  and  be  ready  to  give  the 
rule  for  the  use  of  each  comma : 

1.  Fairest  of  all  the  maids  was  Evangeline,  Benedict's  daughter ! 
Noblest  of  all  the  youths  was  Gabriel,  son  of  the  blacksmith  I 

2.  Borne  aloft  on  his  comrades'  arms,  came  Michael  the  fiddler. 

3.  All  these  were  mere  terrors  of  the  night,  phantoms  of  the  mind  that 
walk  in  darkness. 

4.  There  were  old  farmers,  a  spare  leathern-faced  race,  in  homespun 
clothes,  blue  stockings,  huge  shoes  and  magnificent  pewter  buckles. 

5.  You  would  have  thought  that  St.  Vitus  himself,  that  blessed  patron  of 
the  dance,  was  figuring  before  you  in  person. 

Exercise  E 

Explain  the  capitalization  and  punctuation  of  these  stanzas  from 
Whittier's  poems  "The  Eternal  Goodness"  and  "Our  Master." 
The  semicolon  is  used  to  connect  two  sentences  which  might  have 
been  written  separately.    Memorize  these  lines  for  writing. 

1.  I  know  not  where  His  islands  lift 

Their  fronded  palms  in  air; 
I  only  know  I  cannot  drift 
Beyond  His  love  and  care. 

2.  O  Lord  and  Master  of  us  all ! 

Whate'er  our  name  or  sign, 
We  own  Thy  sway,  we  hear  Thy  call, 
We  test  our  lives  by  Thine. 


136  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

II.  Correct  Usage 
Exercise  F 

Each,  every,  either  (of  two),  and  neither  (of  two)  make  us  think 
of  more  than  one  person  or  thing,  but  of  only  one  at  a  time.  If  we 
say  each  chair  in  the  room,  we  think  of  the  chairs  singly  ;  each  chair, 
then,  is  singular,  and  should  be  so  used.  It  is  wrong  to  say,  ''  Each 
chair  were  in- their  places."  Why?  Correct  this  sentence.  If  we 
speak  of  several  people  as  each  child  in  the  class,  every  person  in 
totvn,  we  think  of  them  singly.  Flere  the  difficulty  is  that  we  refer 
to  either  men  or  women,  boys  or  girls ;  shall  we  say  his,  her,  or 
their '^  We  must  not  use  their,  because  each  child  xs,  singular;  the 
correct  form  is  his,  even  though  girls  are  included.  Say  "  Each 
child  takes  his  place,"  "  Every  person  in  town  sees  that  this  plan  is 
to  his  advantage."  But  say,  of  course,  "  Each  girl  has  her  lunch 
basket." 

If  either  and  neither  are  added  to  plural  nouns  (for  example, 
"  Neither  the  girls  nor  the  boys  see  the  joke  on  thein selves  ")  the 
nouns  are,  of  course,  still  plural ;  if  added  to  singular  nouns,  the 
nouns  are  still  singular  (for  example,  "  Neither  the  boy  nor  the  girl 
sees  the  joke  ").  To  say  on  hitnselfhert  would  sound  awkward,  and 
should  be  avoided  ;  but  it  would  be  allowable.  Fill  the  blanks  cor- 
rectly, and  be  careful  of  these  expressions  in  speech  and  writing. 

1.  Each happy  in work. 

2.  Either  you  or  he bound  to  lose. 

3.  Neither  one  of  us very  prompt  in  keeping appointments. 

4.  either  of  you  going  to  town  ? 

5.  each  of  the  children  invited  } 

6.  either  of  you  seen  my  scissors? 

7.  each  ready  to  recite lesson .' 

8.  Every  man done part. 

9.  Each  hour more  swiftly  than fellow  just  past. 

10.  Everybody that ignorant  on  some  subjects. 

11.  Each  of  us seen  some  of plans  come  to  nothing. 

12.  Every  gentleman learned  that own  feelings  are  not  the 

most  important  objects  of  interest. 


INTEREST  137 

13.  each  of  you pen  and  ink  ? 

14.  Neither  the  river  nor  the  lake clear. 

15.  Neither  the  baby  nor  the  mother hurt ;  and  each life 

to  a  brave  fireman. 

16.  neither  of  them  come  ? 

17.  Each  apple as  nearly  perfect  as neighbor;  every  one  of 

them delicious. 

Exercise  G 

Two  negatives  applied  to  the  same  statement  logically  cancel 
each  other.  No,  none,  nothing,  etc.,  mean  not  any,  or  no-thing.  If 
you  say  that  you  have  not  no  thing,  you  must  have  soi7ie  thing  ;  but 
no  one  ever  uses  such  a  form  to  mean  this.  Fill  the  blanks  with 
as  many  pronoun  subjects  as  possible,  reading  aloud  distinctly, 
first  as  statements,  and  then  as  questions : 


1. 

•  have  no  book. 

2. 

has  no  cover. 

3. 

have  no  chalk. 

4. 

had  none  yesterday. 

5. 

■  brought  no  wraps. 

6. 

saw  no  guests. 

7. 

find  no  time  for  that. 

8. 

can  go  no  farther. 

9. 

said  nothing  about  it. 

10. 

ate  no  dinner. 

11. 

took  none  with  him. 

12. 

had  taken  no  umbrella. 

13. 

have  done  no  work. 

14. 

had  discovered  no  path. 

Exercise  H 

Fill  the  blanks  with  saw  or  seen.  Sitw  always  asserts ;  it  is  a 
verb.  Seen  never  asserts ;  it  is  a  verbal,  and  may  be  used  in 
forming  verb  phrases  with  has,  have,  had,  is,  are,  was,  were,  or 
for  modifying. 

1.   I it ;  you  have me  ;  we her  ;  we  were ;  she 

you ;  they the  procession ;  he  had  the  fire ;  the  children 

the  circus. 


138  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

2.  Have  you  ever "  The  Merchant  of  Venice  "  played  ? 

3.  Were  they as  they  entered  the  building  ? 

4.  No  one them  there  ;  but  five  witnesses them  come  out. 

5.  We the  comet  through  the  telescope ;  and  since  then  I  have 

it  twice  at  sunset. 

6.  I you  hide  in  the  cellar-way. 

7.  We the  ships  unloading. 

8.  Have  you my  brother?    He you  pass  the  house  once. 

Exercise  I 

Fill  the  blanks  with  did  or  done.    Notice  that  done  is  never  a 
verb  —  always  a  verbal.    Did  is  always  a  verb  —  never  a  verbal. 

1.  He  it ;    she  it ;    you it ;  we  it ;   they it ;  I 

it ;  none it ;  the  cat it. 

2.  Have  you the  work  assigned  ?    Has  she it,  too  ? 

3.  We the  task  almost  as  quickly  as  he. 

4.  They  have  not this  so  often  as  I. 

5.  I  had my  work  as  if  I  expected  to  have  the  whole  day  for  it. 

6.  The  dog the  shepherd's  work. 

7.  If  you  have  not  the  cooking  for  a  large  family,  you  cannot 

imagine  what  Mary with  her  morning. 

8.  I it  with  my  little  hatchet ;  but  I  would  not  have it  if  my 

father  had  been  looking. 

Exercise  J 

Make  ten  sensible  sentences,  using  saw  and  did ;  also  ten,  using 
seen  and  done  with  has,  have,  or  had.    Read  them  aloud. 

SUGGESTED   THEME   TOPICS 

1.  Planting  Corn  (a  Garden,  a  Flower  Bed). 

2.  A  Day  in  the  Hay  Field. 

3.  A  Trip  on  the  River. 

4.  My  First  Ride  in  an  Automobile. 

5.  Forty  Miles  an  Hour. 

6.  An  Unhappy  New  Year. 

7.  A  Visit  to  a  Mine  (or  Factor)'). 

8.  Going  for  the  Doctor. 


INTEREST  139 


9.  How  a  Ship  is  Loaded. 

10.  A  Glimpse  of  New  York  Harbor. 

11.  Views  from  the  Tower. 

12.  Along  the  Lake  Front. 

13.  Waiting  for  the  Dentist. 

14.  A  (Florida)  Picnic. 

15.  From  Snow  to  Roses. 

16.  A  Trip  in  a  Balloon  (or  on  a  Kite). 

17.  Flying  across  the  Channel. 

18.  My  Neighbor's  Dog  (Cat,  etc.). 

19.  A  Horse  That  Balked. 

20.  Distributing  Papers. 

21.  The  Right  Kind  of  Chum. 

22.  "  The  Dogs  All  Bark  at  Me." 

23.  Waiting  for  the  Second  Table. 

24.  A  Trip  to  the  Museum. 

25.  Getting  Ready  for  the  Fair  (or  a  Trip). 

26.  A  Contract. 

27.  Dry. 

28.  Wet. 

29.  Lonesome. 

30.  Awkward. 

31.  Happy. 

32:  A  Night  in  a  Sleeping  Car. 

33.  The  Kind  of  Home  I  Should  Like. 

34.  At  the  Ticket  Window. 

35.  The  Street  Beggar. 


CHAPTER  V 

UNITY 

A.   UNITY  OF   PARAGRAPHS 

It  is  queer  how  the  birds  come  back  to  their  old  homes  in  the 
spring.  The  love  of  "  home,  sweet  home  "  is  strong  in  every  one. 
They  sometimes  fly  more  than  a  thousand  miles  from  their  winter 
homes  in  foreign  countries.  More  than  anything  else  I  hope  to 
travel  when  I  am  grown.  Then,  like  the  birds,  I  can  see  how  other 
people  live.  These  foreigners  often  kill  the  birds  for  their  feathers. 
I  think  it  is  wrong  for  women  to  wear  feathers  in  their  hats,  for  it 
makes  the  men  kill  so  many  birds.  And  yet  the  birds  keep  on 
going  back. 

What  was  the  writer  trying  to  tell  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph 1  Is  he  definite  in  the  whole  paragraph  ?  Is  he  definite 
in  each  sentence }  What  should  be  done  with  the  paragraph 
to  make  it  seem  that  the  writer  was  sincere  in  tr}dng  to  say 
something  to  his  readers .? 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  a  person  says  so  much 
about  so  many  different  things  that  when  he  is  through  we 
do  not  have  any  clear  impression  of  what  he  has  been  talking 
about.  It  is  all  a  jumble  of  details  which  center  about  noth- 
ing. We  say  that  the  talk  lacks  unity.  If  the  talk  has  unity, 
it  is  all  about  one  thing  and  is  expressed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  one  impression.  In  the  paragraph  quoted  above  the 
speaker  is  talking  about  too  many  things ;  and  even  if  the 
sentences  that  are  directly  about  the  migration  of  birds  be 
preserved,  they  do  not  give  a  single  impression. 

140 


UNITY  141 

The  writer  might  have  said  something  interesting  in  a  few 
sentences  about  the  mystery  of  migration,  about  the  apparent 
stupidity  of  the  birds  in  returning  to  dangerous  places,  or 
about  man's  inhumanity  toward  migrating  birds.  But  in  none 
of  these  topics  is  there  room  for  remarks  about  man's  love 
for  home  or  the  writer's  hope  to  travel. 

EXERCISE  124: -Oral 
STUDYING  PARAGRAPH   UNITY 

What  was  the  writer  trying  to  tell  in  each  of  the  following 
paragraphs  ?  Is  each  paragraph  about  one  thing  ?  Are  the 
thoughts  so  expressed  that  we  get  one  impression  from  each  ? 
If  so,  what  ?  Did  the  writer  tell  enough,  —  in  other  words, 
did  he  stay  by  a  single  idea  until  he  made  you  thoroughly 
understand  it  ? 

1.  Going  with  a  box  of  honey  to  a  field  some  distance  from 
domesticated  hives,  the  hunter  gathers  up  from  flowers  several  bees 
and  imprisons  them,  and  after  they  have  been  sufficiently  gorged  lets 
them  out  to  return  home.  Waiting  patiently,  he  scarcely  ever  fails 
to  see  the  bees  return  accompanied  by  fellow  workers,  which  are 
imprisoned  till  they  in  turn  are  filled.  Then  one  at  a  time  the  bees 
are  let  out  at  places  distant  from  one  another,  and  the  direction  in 
which  each  one  flies  is  noted.  Thus,  by  a  kind  of  triangulation,  the 
position  of  the  bee-tree  is  approximately  ascertained.  —  Adapted 

2.  The  boys  of  Kansas  used  to  rob  the  bumblebees'  nest  more 
from  excitement  caused  by  the  danger  of  being  stung  than  to  secure 
the  honey.  They  would  take  a  one-  or  two-gallon  jug,  such  as  is 
commonly  used  to  carry  water  to  haymakers,  fill  it  partly  with 
water,  and  place  it,  with  the  cork  removed,  within  two  or  three 
feet  of  the  nest.  The  bees  were  then  thoroughly  aroused  by  the 
breaking  of  their  nest,  immediately  after  which  the  venturesome 
boys  removed  themselves  hurriedly  to  a  safe  distance.  The  en- 
raged bees,  swarming  out  and  flying  in  widening  circles  to  discover 
the  enemy,  would  be  attracted  by  the  jug,  and  numbers  of  them 


142  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

would  naturally  fly  over  its  open  mouth,  which,  by  reason  of  the 
air  set  in  motion  by  their  wings,  would  give  an  answering  roar  to 
their  angry  humming.  Excited  beyond  measure  by  this  noise,  the 
bees  would  fly  at  the  mouth  of  the  jug  and  one  after  another  would 
pop  into  it,  the  noise  produced  by  those  within  still  further  attract- 
ing those  without  until  all  had  entered.  A  second  disturbance  of 
the  nest  would  serve  to  draw  out  or  dispose  of  any  of  the  remain- 
ing worker-bees  ;  and  then  the  robbing  of  the  nest  was  easy.  After 
robbing  the  nest,  the  boys  emptied  the  jug  on  the  ground,  and  the 
bees,  although  apparently  drowned,  would  soon  recover. 

Adapted  from  Howard,  "  The  Insect  Book  " 


EXERCISE  125  — Oral 
FINDING  TOPICS   THAT   BELONG  TOGETHER 

Select  a  subject  about  which  you  can  talk  for  one  or  two 
minutes.  Place  on  the  board  a  number  of  topics  that  fall 
under  your  subject,  and  discuss  which  should  be  used  to  make 
an  interesting  paragraph.  In  this  discussion  it  may  be  found 
wise,  as  you  learned  in  Chapter  I,  to  make  the  subject  smaller. 
It  is  easier  to  talk  well  for  two  minutes  on  "'  My  Experience 
with  a  Snake,"  for  instance,  than  on  "  Snakes."  Place  the 
topics  in  a  natural  order. 

Here  is  an  outline  of  the  last  paragraph  in  Exercise  124  : 

Robbing  bumblebees'  nests  in  Kansas. 

1.  Purpose  of  robbing  the  nests. 

2.  The  means  used. 

3.  Arousing  the  bees. 

4.  Response  of  the  bees. 

5.  Drawing  out  the  remaining  bees. 

6.  Robbing  the  nest. 

7.  Disposal  of  the  bees. 

Keep  in  your  notebooks  for  future  use  several  of  these 
completed  outlines. 


UNITY  143 

EXERCISE  126  — Oral 

RECITING   IN   A   WELL-UNIFIED   PARAGRAPH 

Be  prepared  to  talk  on  the  subject  discussed  in  Exercise  125, 
first  placing  your  outline  on  the  board.  Remember  that  you 
are  to  make  one  paragraph  only. 

EXERCISE  127—  Written  and  Oral 

OUTLINING   A   WELL-UNIFIED    PARAGRAPH   AND 
TESTING   IT 

Select  a  new  subject,  as  in  Exercise  125,  and  arrange  an 
outline  for  it.  Place  this  on  the  board  and  talk  from  it.  This 
oral  development  may  be  of  one  paragraph  or  of  several.  In 
making  the  outline  be  sure  that  all  the  points  which  you 
number  or  letter  in  the  same  way  are  of  equal  importance. 

PLATE  XI 

I 


B. 


T. 

IT 

I. 

-7 

If  you  remember  this,  you  will  force  yourself  to  see  exactly 
the  interrelations  of  what  you  are  saying.  Also  remember 
that  it  is  better  form  to  word  similar  headings  in  a  similar 
way,  using  sentences  throughout,  or  clauses,  or  nouns,  or 
verbals,  as  you  find  most  convenient.  In  reciting  on  these 
outlines  take  time  to  prepare  yourself  and  time  to  say  just 


144  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

what  you  mean.  Beware  of  ers  and  of  too  many  and's.  Let 
each  member  of  the  class  give  a  title  to  your  oral  composition. 
Your  success  in  giving  a  unified  impression  will  be  tested 
largely  by  the  agreement  of  the  titles  that  the  class  suggest 
for  your  recitation, 

EXERCISE  128  — Ora/ 

TESTING   A   RECITATION   FOR   UNITY   BY   OUTLINING 

Prepare  as  in  Exercise  127,  but  place  nothing  on  the  board. 
Talk  from  the  outline.  Try  to  make  your  recitation  interest- 
ing, both  in  the  selection  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
material.  It  is  likely  to  be  so  if  you  are  sincere  and  definite 
in  your  work.  Remember  that  your  success  in  expression  is 
tested  not  by  what  }'ou  mean  but  by  what  the  class  think 
you  mean.  The  rest  of  the  class  will  take  notes  and  place 
on  the  board  an  outline  of  what  you  presented.  Contrast 
these  outlines  with  each  other  and  with  the  one  that  you 
originally  made. 

EXERCISE  129  —  Writtm 
USING  THE   TOPIC   SENTENCE 

a.  Using  one  of  the  outlines  made  for  oral  composition  in 
the  preceding  exercises,  write  out  what  you  have  to  say  about 
it.  If  you  have  followed  your  outline  closely,  you  will  find  it 
possible  to  sum  up  in  one  good  sentence  all  that  }"ou  have 
written.    This  is  called  the  topic  sentence. 

b.  Write  the  expansion  of  another  of  the  outlines  used  in 
oral  composition.  Before  beginning  the  paragraph,  set  down 
in  a  good  topic  sentence  what  you  intend  to  say.  Using  this 
for  your  first  sentence,  develop  the  paragraph.  By  devices 
that  you  have  studied  try  to  secure  interest. 


UNITY  145 

c.  Still  using  the  outlines  made  for  oral  work,  announce 
good  topic  sentences,  and  then  decide  what  sort  of  develop- 
ment each  seems  to  require.  Write  out  the  development  of 
one  paragraph. 

EXERCISE  130  —  Written 
DEVELOPING   A   TOPIC    FOR   DIFFERENT   HEARERS 

Take  several  of  the  outlines  already  made  and  have  them 
developed  for  two  very  different  hearers.  For  example,  if  the 
paragraph  tells  of  the  last  inning  of  a  baseball  game,  have 
the  outline  developed  for  a  boy  and  also  for  his  sister,  who, 
presumably,  is  not  versed  in  the  game. 

EXERCISE  131  — Ora/ 
MAKING  A   TOPICAL   RECITATION 

Organize  a  recitation  that  you  are  to  make,  or  have  made, 
in  history  or  some  other  school  subject,  and  present  it  for 
the  criticism  of  the  class. 


It  is  a  good  plan,  when  you  have  a  proposition  to  support 
or  attack,  to  call  up  all  the  ideas  that  you  have  on  the  subject, 
whether  or  not  they  at  first  seem  important.  Careful  consid- 
eration often  shows  importance  and  relations  that  you  did  not 
at  first  suspect. 

Consider  also  what  may  be  asserted  against  your  position 
and  see  if  you  can  meet  the  objections.  If  not,  frankly  admit 
them.  After  all,  in  any  argument  one  should  have  as  his  aim 
not  mere  personal  success,  but  truth.  Temporary  victory  is  of 
trifling  impc^rtance  in  comparison  with  the  permanent  desire 
to  secure  the  truth,  \\'hatever  it  may  be. 


146  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

Then,  after  considering  your  own  points  and  the  objections 
that  may  be  made  against  them,  discard  what  is  not  immedi- 
ately relative,  to  secure  unity,  and  what  is  not  effective,  to 
secure  results.  The  remaining  essential  points  you  should 
then  arrange  in  such  logical  order  that  they  will  lead  to  proof. 

EXERCISE  132  —  Oral  and  Written 
SELECTING  AND  ARKANCnXO    MATERIAL  FOR  ARGUMENT 

Prepare  points  in  support  of  or  against  each  of  the  follow- 
ing propositions.  Then  decide  which  of  them  you  can  discard 
as  admitted  by  both  sides,  as  inconsequential,  or  as  not  imme- 
diately relevant.  The  remaining  ones  will  be  in  direct  clash 
with  each  other,  or  there  will  be  no  argument  possible. 

a.  Municipal  elections  should  be  divorced  from  national  politics. 

b.  Sunday  schools  should  be  organized  and  conducted  like  public 
day  schools. 

c.  A  boy  or  girl  ought  to  be  sent  away  from  home  for  secondary- 
school  education. 

(f.  The  lady  came  out    of  the  door.     (See   Stockton,  "  The 
Lady  or  the  Tiger  ") 

EXERCISE  133  —  Written 
SELECTING  AND   ARRANGING    ALVTERIAL  FOR  ARGUMENT 

a.  On  Friday  of  next  week  one  of  your  friends  plans  a 
picnic,  an  excursion  which  you  are  very  anxious  to  attend. 
You  feel  pretty  sure,  however,  that  your  father,  who  is  away 
from  home,  will  object  to  your  missing  school  that  day. 
Write  to  him,  stating  the  situation  and  advancing  whatever 
reasons  you  can  why  he  should  grant  you  permission.  Antici- 
pate his  obvious  objections. 

/;.  Write  your  father's  reply,  arguing  that  it  would  not  be 
wise  for  you  to  absent  )-oursclf  from  school. 


UNITY  147 

B.    UNITY   OF   NOTES 

A  social  letter  that  is  short  and  all  about  one  thing  is  called 
a  note.  By  its  very  definition  a  note  must  have  unity  in  its 
subject-matter  ;  more  than  that,  it  must  have  unity  and  sin- 
cerity in  its  tone.  This  means,  for  instance,  that  a  note  to 
a  dear  friend  will  be  frankly  intimate,  a  note  to  an  acquaint- 
ance no  less  frank  but  more  reserved.  The  mutual  feeling 
of  friends  should  be  evident  in  notes  between  them.  And, 
finally,  in  all  notes  there  should  be  a  fine  spirit  of  old- 
fashioned  courtesy. 

There  is  a  stilted,  conventional  third-person  form  of  note 
that  is  occasionally  used  by  grown-ups  for  announcements  and 
for  very  formal  invitations  to  dignified  entertainments ;  but 
this  concerns  us  little.  However,  an  illustration  of  such  an 
announcement,  together  with  a  correct  answer,  is  given  : 

PLATE  XII 


cy^i'd^ 

C/vlQi't'nyi^-t-e  C^A-i'^C^/^tj/Ki   ^.-e-t^i^c-ed'UL   -t^/i-e 

^^eei^u^'te- 

■ojL    (Z/i/^^}c-i<j-    CA-'^^ed    ^^^-a-Pt  d    ■c-a'm^ 

^t-Cl-l'-t'M.    €l-i 

■€1  '7a^2^'^--t.C'Ci^e  't<i  'de  ■at^u^e^'t 

€i/  cyXe 

C^)Q^i^vi.e^n^ci<i^(^ C^c^ci-cc^^n^'U,^  Cy'''He/€z-u-  e-'f^e^n.-c^t^i.-^^ 

^ely7^U^Cl4.^ 

'vA-e  j^^^Ce-e^yi.-i^^  -ci-i  ■ei--a,A^ 

iSi  -o^ixtyn-. 

^tZ'T^i^-ci'i^  -'I'Ae   d€^■^t'eyp^^A. 

148  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

PLATE  XIII 


tkd.       0^^^2^3<i       <^^^<2-*^       ^ZC-Oe^^       -Ui^l^ 


if 


The  note  that  vvc  shall  ordinarily  use  is,  in  form,  just  a  short, 
friendly  letter,  with  a  few  changes.  The  heading  of  the  letter, 
usually  in  a  modified  form,  is  frequently  written  below  the 
note,  beginning  at  the  left-hand  margin.  And,  as  in  friendly 
letters,  the  other  parts  may  be  variously  changed  to  express 
individuality  or  cordiality.  Whatever  variations  may  be  prac- 
ticed, however,  a  note  should  include  evcr)thing  necessary 
to  make  its  purpose  clear. 

I.  Invitations  and  Their  Answers 

A  note  of  invitation  must  state  definitely  what  the  invita- 
tion is  for,  the  day  and  the  hour,  the  place,  and,  usually,  what 
guests  are  to  be  present. 


UNITY  149 


PLATE  XIV 


■'■^'€'€Z4.   ^^dfi'i'fyi^yie^^  ■ 


if 


-t€t-CM^ 


■POl^    €^eiy7^l 


ISO  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  134 -Ore/ 
STUDYING   A   NOTE  OF   INVITATION 

How  docs  Lester's  note  differ  from  a  letter  ?  Why  were 
some  parts  of  the  letter  heading  unnecessary  here  ?  Did 
Lester  include  all  the  parts  that  were  necessary  ?  Whv  would 
it  be  better  for  a  writer  of  a  note  to  give  too  many  than  not 
enough  ? 

How  well  acquainted  are  the  boys  ?  Does  Lester  secure 
and  maintain  an  appropriate  atmosphere  in  his  note  ?  Justify 
your  answer. 

Test  the  unity  of  the  note  both  as  to  what  it  says  and  as 
to  what  it  implies. 

The  answer  to  a  note  of  invitation  should  be  similar  to  it 
in  form  and  in  tone ;  and,  that  there  may  be  no  possible 
misunderstanding,  it  should  repeat  the  important  details  of 
occasion  and  time.  The  informality  and  the  cordial  tone  of 
the  note  on  page  151,  for  instance,  would  be  entirely  im- 
proper in  a  reply  to  such  a  formal  invitation  as  the  one  given 
on  page  147.  Illustrative  of  both  merit  and  defect  are  the 
following  clever  notes  :  ^ 

Mr.  Rogers  to  Lady  Dufferin : 
Will  you  dine  with  me  on  Wednesday.? 

Lady  Dufferin  to  Mr.  Rogers : 
Won't  I  ? 

EXERCISE  135  -  Written 
WRITING   AN   ANSWER  TO   AN   INVITATION 

Write  Sumner's  answer  to  Lester  McCord's  invitation  on 
page  149. 

1  Quoted  from  the  delightful  anthology  of  letters  and  notes,  "  The  Gentlest  Art," 
edited  by  E.  V.  Lucas. 


UNITY  151 

EXERCISE  136  —  Written 
WRITING   AN   INVITATION 

Write  the  note  to  which  the  following  is  a  reply : 

PLATE  XV 


Ci4h^    </eir7A   Cy§h-i^  -^ 

'^Api'Pt-cAez^  ^Qrc>A-a-ci^ -c-Ctzdd  ^tt^e^'Vf.  't^i^i^u-c^  -epCii4.i.-M-a. 

dyA.-ciy^c  -A-ei-^ijt-e  -ei  ■f7,o<i€/  ^ti-n-e  -w^i-^vA  -t^cd-  ■^i^.-e^m^oi^l. 

tA 

■gi^yiirA  AAj-  'Ae^iii^A-e-i  <i-A  --AAe^  At-^z-t^^. 
S33  (yJ^edyA  ■^2.4^-Ah.   ^&^At-e^^ 


152  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  U7— Written 
WRITING   INVITATIONS 

Be  prepared  to  write  in  class  the  following;  short  notes : 
an  invitation  to  lunch  ;  to  dinner  ;  to  spend  the  day ;  to 
attend  the  theater,  a  house-party,  the  circus,  a  ball  game,  a 
thimble  bee,  a  picnic,  a  chafing-dish  party,  an  evening  party ; 
to  a  hay  ride,  an  automobile  drive,  a  horseback  ride,  a  walk 
after  school,  a  Saturday  tramp.  Think  of  your  friend,  keep 
in  mind  what  he  will  need  to  know,  and  express  yourself  so 
as  to  make  the  invitation  seem  really  cordial. 

Address  at  least  one  of  the  above  invitations  to  each  of  the 
following  people  :  your  best  friend  at  school,  a  good  friend 
not  in  school,  a  friend  in  a  neighboring  town,  your  teacher, 
a  former  teacher,  a  visiting  boy  or  girl,  your  pastor,  a  man 
who  has  been  friendly  to  you  and  to  whom  you  wish  to  show 
some  courtesy,  a  boy  or  girl  who  has  recently  moved  into 
your  neighborhood. 

EXERCISE  138  —  Written 
ANSWERING  INVITATIONS 

Taking  the  part  of  the  person  addressed,  be  prepared  to 
accept  or  decline  each  of  the  invitations  in  Exercise  137.  Be 
careful  to  show  your  appreciation  and  to  mention  any  detail 
that  should  be  mentioned.  In  declining  an  invitation  it  is 
not  necessary,  but  customary,  to  give  a  reason. 

II.  Notes  Accompanying  Gifts 

A  note  accompanying  a  gift  adds  personality  to  it  and 
makes  it  doubly  welcome.  Such  a  note  should  have,  of 
course,  the  unity  and  sincerity  demanded  of  all  notes,  and  it 
should,  in  addition,  be  in  harmony,  as  it  were,  with  the  gift. 


UNITY  153 


PLATE   XVI 


C/  ^Lfzi'tA'U.  -i-eoa'Ut.e.4.^^  Ai-a'iat  -C/ie  d^Oi-cJt  -oA 
^lyAe-eidute^     Q/     ■A-e-gz-n-Ji    -l^a    '■ApoJL     -ez-u-cH-c^  /^"^ 

Cy  -^/i-o^ci-a^Ar  ojL  -i^-a^i.  O^  ■u.xi^i-  oci-yi.  'i  ■c-O'i-i'i^ 
■a'U-eA^  Gz-ci-m  d'e^/^i^c-i^-a  'T^.oyu  't-A.^idye  -uid-ed^  -tt^-coA. 
Cy     -n-o-^-e     -vti^At     ■c-ci^^.-t^     -^     -t^-o-i^d.     d€€-'r£.=4-ao--^-z 

^i^^-t^tA.  d-c-nyoete  ^'C-e-^t^c^ 


154  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

EXERCISE  1Z9  — Written 

WRITING   NOTKS   TO   ACCOMPANY   GIFTS 

Write  notes  to  various  friends  to  accompany  a  gift  of  a 
book,  candy,  flowers,  an  Easter  lily,  a  potted  plant,  a  souvenir 
brought  home  from  a  trip,  some  autumn  leaves  or  wild  flowers 
gathered  on  a  walk,  a  sketch  that  you  have  made,  some  verses 
that  you  have  written,  a  magazine  containing  a  story  that  you 
like,  a  portrait  of  yourself  or  of  some  one  whom  you  both  ad- 
mire.   Feel  sincere,  and  try  to  make  your  note  interesting. 

EXERCISE  140  —  Written 
NOTES   OF   GRATITUDE 

Be  prepared  to  answer  in  class  any  of  the  notes  just 
written.    Be  appreciative,  but  do  not  gush. 

III.  Notes  of  iNTRODUCxioisr 

A  note  of  introduction  is  often  written  for  some  one  who 
is  about  to  visit  in  a  town  where  a  friend  of  the  writer  lives. 
It  should  tell  who  the  bearer  of  the  note  is,  whether  a  friend 
or  an  acquaintance,  why  he  is  in  the  city  where  your  friend 
resides,  and  what,  if  anything  especial,  you  should  like  your 
friend  to  do  for  him.  The  envelope  should  be  left  unsealed 
and  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  should  be  written  "'  Intro- 
ducing Mr. ."    Why  ? 

EXERCISE  HI  — Written 
WRITING   A   NOTE  OF   INTRODUCTION 

Be  prepared  to  write  a  note  of  introduction  to  your  cousin, 
who  is  of  your  own  age,  for  a  close  friend  who  is  to  spend 
two  weeks  of  his  vacation  in  the  home  city  of  your  cousin  ;  to 


UNITY  1 5  5 

your  uncle,  a  business  man,  for  a  schoolfellow  who  is  looking 
for  work  ;  to  a  teacher  in  a  large  school  which  the  bearer  of 
the  note  plans  to  enter  ;  to  a  student  in  the  same  school ;  to 
a  librarian  for  a  friend  who  is  bookish  ;  to  the  curator  of  a 
museum  or  art  gallery  for  a  friend  who  is  interested  in  the 
exhibits  ;  to  a  football  or  baseball  coach  for  an  athlete  who 
is  going  to  see  a  college  game  and  who  thinks  of  entering 
college  the  next  year. 

IV.  Miscellaneous  Notes 

EXERCISE  U2  — Written 
WRITING  VARIOUS   NOTES 

1.  You  are  contemplating  making  some  change  at  school 
(in  your  debating  club,  literary  society,  management  of  ath- 
letics, noon-hour  recess,  etc.).  Write  to  an  acquaintance  at 
another  school  and  inquire  how  the  matter  is  managed  there. 

2.  A  friend  has  moved  away  or  is  traveling.  Write  to  a 
relative  of  his  for  his  address. 

3.  Some  one  has  an  old  schoolbook  that  was  used  by  your 
mother  when  a  girl.    Write  a  note  to  see  if  you  can  get  it. 

4.  Some  one  has  written  a  book,  a  story,  or  a  poem  that 
pleased  you  very  much.  Write  a  note  of  appreciation,  telling 
what  you  particularly  liked. 

5.  An  acquaintance  has  taken  exception  to  something  that 
you  have  done  or  said.  Write  a  note  of  explanation.  Be 
frank,  but  avoid  further  wounding  his  feelings. 

6.  There  is  reason  why  you  wish  to  be  relieved  of  some 
requirement  at  school.    Write  a  note,  asking  the  favor. 

7.  You  wish  to  secure  work  of  some  kind  during  the  sum- 
mer. Write  to  some  man  who  knows  you,  asking  if  you  may 
use  him  as  a  reference. 


156  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

C.    UNITY   OF   SENTENCES 

EXERCISE  143  — Ore/ 

SENTENCES  WELL  OR  ILL  UNIFIED 

Which  of  the  following  sentences  are  all  about  one  thing  ? 
Which  seems  not  only  to  be  all  about  one  thing  but  also  to 
give  one  impression  ?  In  what  ways  can  you  change  the  otiier 
sentences  so  as  to  make  them  give  one  impression  ? 

1.  Herbert  Lansing  is  captain  of  our  baseball  team  and  the  north 
pole  has  been  discovered. 

2.  In  Washington  we  saw  a  portrait  of  the  first  President,  who  after 
his  retirement  from  office  went  back  to  his  plantation  in  Virginia. 

3.  Colonel  Jarvis's  gun  weighed  fifteen  pounds  and  he  killed  the 
lion  with  it. 

4.  After  several  hours  of  hard  work,  Colonel  Jarvis  and  his  helpers 
had  taken  from  the  dead  lions  their  skins  and  had  prepared  them  for 
shipment  to  New  York. 

Here  we  have  illustrations  of  three  common  ways  of  mak- 
ing badly  unified  sentences  :  first,  by  combining  ideas  that 
are  not  at  all  related  ;  second,  by  adding  an  idea  that  is  re- 
lated only  to  some  one  part  of  what  precedes  ;  third,  by  com- 
bining related  ideas  in  a  way  that  does  not  show  their  relation. 
The  fourth  sentence,  though  longer  than  the  others,  is  well 
unified  because  it  combines  related  ideas  in  a  way  that  shows 
their  relation  :  it  tells  the  result  of  the  hunter's  work, 

I.  Unity  in  Thought 

EXERCISE  144  — Ora/ 

MAKING   SENTENCES   UNIFIED   IN  THOUGHT 

Decide  which  of  the  ideas  in  the  following  groups  are  about 
one  thing.  Which  can  you  combine  so  as  to  give  one  impres- 
sion —  that  is,  so  as  to  secure  unity  t  In  the  first  group,  for 
example,  the  second  sentence  tells  who  the  woman  is.    The 


UNITY  157 

third  statement  may  be  connected  with  the  thought  of  a 
butcher,  but  not  at  all  with  the  idea  asserted  in  the  second. 
In  seeking  unity,  then,  we  must  omit  the  third  sentence  and 
combine  the  other  two  in  some  such  way  as  this:  "The 
mother  of  the  butcher  is  ill,"  or  "  The  woman  who  is  ill  is 
the  butcher's  mother." 

1.  The  woman  is  ill.  She  is  the  mother  of  the  butcher.  Meat  has 
advanced  in  price. 

2.  The  clock  fell  from  the  tower.  It  had  been  in  place  for  twenty 
years.    The  cables  that  held  it  were  weakened  by  rust. 

3.  The  airship  sailed  over  New  York.  New  York  is  more  than  ten 
miles  long.    The  city  was  founded  by  the  Dutch. 

4.  Washington  and  Jefferson  were  both  natives  of  Virginia.  This 
state  was  named  for  Queen  Elizabeth.    She  died  in  1603. 

5.  Silas  Marner  had  lost  his  faith  in  God  and  in  man.  Eppie  brought 
Silas  an  interest  in  life.    She  afterward  married  Aaron  Winthrop. 

6.  Godfrey  Cass  was  Dunstan's  older  brother  and  he  did  not  know 
of  the  accident  at  the  Stone  Pits  until  years  after  his  marriage.  He  mar- 
ried Nancy. 

7.  Stevenson  wrote  "  Treasure  Island."  I  like  the  story  very  much. 
I  read  it  last  winter. 

8.  The  captain  planned  the  play.  He  did  this  with  great  care.  The 
opponents  were  very  clever  in  breaking  through  the  line.  They  often 
spoiled  a  new  play  before  it  was  started. 

9.  Bud  Means  decided  to  whip  the  master.  Bud  thought  that  the 
master  was  in  love  with  Martha.  Bud  loved  Martha  himself.  The  mas- 
ter was  in  love  with  Hannah. 

10.  Buck  and  White  Fang  were  two  fine  dogs.  One  was  raised  in 
civilization  and  finally  went  to  live  with  the  wolves  in  Alaska.  It  is  very 
cold  there.  The  other  dog  was  half  wolf.  He  was  tamed.  Both  dogs 
were  fine  fighters. 

II.  Unity  of  Form 

a.  The  comma  blunder.  One  fault  that  often  prevents 
unity  of  impression  is  the  so-called  comma  blunder,  the  placing 
of  a  comma  where  a  period  ordinarily  should  come.  Whether 
this  be  due  to  ignorance  or  to  carelessness,  it  destroys  unity, 


158  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

causing  the  reader  to  think  that  the  statement  following  the 
comma  should  be  read  with  the  one  preceding.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  following  sentence  the  writer,  though  evi- 
dently trying  to  tell  two  things,  joins  them  as  though  they 
are  one  :  "  I  drove  in  a  buggy  until  we  w^ere  within  a  mile  of 
the  river,  at  that  point  one  of  the  front  wheels  broke."  This 
fault,  which  is  common  in  the  writing  of  beginners,  is  due 
for  the  most  part  to  hazy  thinking  or  to  carelessness.  You 
have  doubtless  had  your  attention  called  to  this  fault  so  fre- 
quently that  only  a  short  exercise  on  it  is  given  here.  If  you 
need  further  work  on  it,  review  Exercise  9. 

EXERCISE  145  —  Written 

CORRECTING  THE  COMMA  BLUNDER 

Rewrite  the  following  so  as  to  secure  unified  sentences  : 

1.  After  it  is  cool,  beat  it  till  it  is  creamy,  then  pour  on  a  buttered  platter. 

2.  Put  in  a  small  pan  two  and  one-half  cups  of  pulverized  sugar  and 
one-half  cup  of  cold  water  and  place  on  a  hot  stove,  let  this  boil  hard 
four  minutes,  then  take  it  from  the  stove. 

3.  The  result  was  funny,  as  is  seen,  the  answers  are  very  different. 

4.  Go  out  about  ten  o'clock  at  night  with  a  lantern  on  a  newly  mown 
lawn,  if  you  step  lightly  you  may  pick  up  a  good  many  crawling  about. 

5.  Then  put  a  small  hem  in  the  neck,  look  at  it  carefully,  you  have 
a  very  pretty  effect,  have  n't  you  ? 

6.  After  this  hold  the  plate  before  the  red  light,  if  it  shows  a  good 
picture,  put  it  in  the  hypo  solution,  then  dip  in  a  pan  of  clean  water  and 
set  it  up  to  dry. 

7.  By  reading  over  a  theme  one  can  often  find  errors  that  he  has 
overlooked,  this  is  especially  true  of  the  comma  fault. 


/;.  Disjoined  expressions.  Sometimes  in  trying  to  avoid  the 
comma  blunder  young  writers  swing  to  the  other  extreme  and 
set  off  by  a  period  a  group  of  words  that  does  not  in  itself 


UNITY  1 59 

make  a  complete  statement.  A  phrase  or  a  clause,  espe- 
cially when  it  contains  several  modifiers,  will  thus  masquer- 
ade as  a  sentence.  It  is  not  hard  to  correct  the  following 
exercise,  where  you  are  expecting  this  fault ;  but  it  requires 
continuous  care  to  avoid  the  fault  in  your  own  writing. 

EXERCISE  146  —  Written 

ATTACHINCx    DISJOINED   EXPRESSIONS 

Rewrite  the  following  so  as  to  secure  unified  sentences  : 

1.  Her  dress  was  made  of  golden-brown  rajah  silk.  With  a  panel 
down  the  front  and  back  trimmed  with  braid  of  the  same  color. 

2.  There  was  tied  by  the  door  a  large  dog.  Who  jumped  toward 
us  fiercely. 

3.  The  bent  figure  of  Silas  Marner,  wet  with  the  rain,  was  among 
them.    His  lean  white  hands  clutching  his  grey  beard  in  his  nervousness. 

4.  The  cuffs  and  sleeves  are  trimmed  with  black  satin  buttons.  The 
cuffs  being  braided  with  braid  like  that  on  the  front  panel. 

5.  Now  put  in  two  cups  of  sugar.   Then  water  enough  to  make  it  thin. 

6.  Nearly  every  farmer  feeds  some  cattle,  either  dairy  cattle  or  fat 
cattle.  Fat  cattle  being  the  more  important  of  the  two  kinds  for  high 
prices  and  profits. 

7.  A  large  proportion  of  the  working  force  is  composed  of  foreigners. 
Many  of  whom  are  unmarried  and  have  only  themselves  to  provide  for. 

8.  Deep  into  the  woods  we  went.  John  carrying  the  bag  in  which 
he  expected  to  catch  snipe. 

9.  But  the  boys,  who,  seeing  that  John  was  badly  frightened,  had  to 
let  him  know  where  they  were. 

10.  Then  all  of  us,  except  our  victim,  after  we  had  run  for  a  quarter 
of  a  mile,  which  seemed  in  the  night  even  farther,  and  finally  came  to 
an  old  house,  with  the  doors  and  windows  all  tightly  shut. 

11.  Here  being  utterly  worn  out,  John,  who  now  began  to  catch  on 
to  the  joke,  for  he  no  longer  seemed  anxious  to  keep  his  bag,  and  lying 
down  on  the  barn  floor,  he  declared  that  he  would  not  budge  another  step. 

12.  Football,  baseball,  and  all  other  sports  have  an  especial  season, 
after  which  we  take  up  something  else.  While  an  interesting  book  is 
in  season  at  any  time  of  the  year. 


l6o  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

c.  Lack  of  co-ordination.  Sometimes  two  statements  to- 
gether go  to  make  one  impression,  as  two  horses  draw  one 
load  ;  but  in  that  case  the  two  propositions  should  be  joined  by 
a  co-ordinate  conjunction  or  separated  by  a  semicolon,  which 
indicates  the  omission  of  such  a  conjunction.  If  the  propo- 
sitions are  long,  each  should  be  a  sentence  in  itself.  We 
may  write  :  "  This  explorer  twice  risked  his  life  to  save  his 
companions  and  he  made  discoveries  that  will  prove  of  great 
worth  to  scientists.  Therefore  we  honor  him."  Here  the 
longer  sentence  gives  two  reasons  for  a  conclusion  and  thus 
makes  one  impression.  This  statement  we  may  also  write  : 
"  This  explorer  twice  risked  his  life  to  save  his  companions  ; 
he  made  discoveries  that  will  prove  of  great  worth  to  scientists. 
Therefore  we  honor  him."  But  when  two  statements  do  not 
make  for  one  effect,  we  should  not,  of  course,  link  them  in 
one  sentence,  however  short  they  may  be. 

And  and  but  are  two  very  common  and  very  useful  words  ; 
but  not  infrequently  they  are  confused  or  overworked.  Both 
are  co-ordinate  conjunctions,  — that  is,  they  are  used  to  con- 
nect elements  of  equal  rank.  In  the  first  sentence  of  this 
paragraph,  for  instance,  the  words  and  and  but,  the  adjectives 
common  and  useful,  and  the  two  propositions  are  joined  by 
these  conjunctions. 

EXERCISE  147 -Oro/ 
STUDYING  THE   USE  OF  CO-ORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS 

In  the  following  passage  decide  what  elements  are  joined 
by  and-dXid.  but.    Are  the  elements  in  each  case  of  equal  rank  t 

The  bear  was  fond  of  the  child  and  as  careful  of  her  as  a  woman 
might  have  been.  In  the  wood  but  not  in  the  clearing  he  was  her 
constant  companion.  Besides  following  quietly  the  little  girl's  foot- 
steps and  keeping  her  from  harm,  the  awkward  but  sagacious  beast 


UNITY  i6i 

taught  her  many  secrets  of  the  wood  —  which  berries  were  good  to 
eat  and  which  were  poisonous,  where  she  could  find  the  larvae  of 
ants,  which  he  liked  so  well,  and  where  the  hare  had  her  nest.  /The 
big  friend  also  frightened  away  those  animals  whom  they  met  and 
who  might  have  planned  mischief;  but  as  Miranda  would  not  go 
far  from  the  clearing,  thejj  never  met  the  bees,  who  are  not  to  be 
intimidated  by  anybody. 


When  properly  used  and  and  /;;//  make  for  unity ;  other- 
wise they  surely  destroy  it.  And  indicates  that  the  speaker 
or  writer  wishes  to  join  two  or  more  elements  — words,  phrases, 
clauses,  or  sentences  —  of  equal  rank,  A  driver  might  very 
properly  harness  together  two  horses  to  draw  one  load,  but  if 
he  attempted  to  yoke  together  for  the  same  purpose  a  horse 
and  a  goat,  the  result  would  be  ludicrously  disastrous. 

EXERCISE  148  —  Oral  or  Written 
USING   THE   CONJUNCTION  AND 

Give  sentences  in  which  the  following  parts  of  a  sentence 
are  effectively  compounded  by  and :  subject,  predicate  ;  adjec- 
tive, adjective  phrase,  and  adjective  clause  modifiers  ;  adverb, 
adverb  phrase,  and  adverb  clause  modifiers  ;  and  propositions. 

If  unity  is  secured,  then,  by  joining  elements  of  equal 
rank,  it  is  obvious  that  unity  is  destroyed  by  joining  elements 
of  unequal  rank.  A  participle  or  a  clause  is  used  as  a  modi- 
fier ;  therefore  of  course  neither  may  be  joined  to  a  proposi- 
tion by  and.  Yet  that  is  precisely  what  careless  young  writers 
do  over  and  over  again.  Moreover,  it  tends  to  destroy  unity 
of  impression  if  and  joins  elements  unlike  in  form,  even 
though  similar  in  use,  —  for  instance,  a  phrase  and  a  clause, 
or  a  verbal  noun  in  -ins"  and  an  infinitive. 


1 62  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  149  —  Oral  or  Written 
CORRKCTIXC;   WRONG   CO-ORDINATION 

Change  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  secure  unity : 

1.  This  is  a  troublesome  error  and  which  requires  care  to  avoid. 

2.  Harold  wriggled  through  a  hole  in  the  fence  and  finding  himself 
in  a  beautiful  garden. 

3.  "  Treasure  Island  "  is  as  interesting  as  a  dime  novel  but  which 
teachers  do  not  object  to  your  reading. 

4.  By  the  side  of  the  road  sat  a  small  boy  crying  but  who  was  soon 
comforted  by  a  stick  of  candy. 

5.  The  biggest  fish  that  I  saw  took  my  bait  but  flopping  off  into 
the  water  before  I  landed  him. 

6.  Her  best  doll,  but  which  she  would  give  up  to  go  to  the  picnic, 
had  come  from  her  uncle  in  China. 

7.  The  lake  in  the  valley  and  which  extends  two  miles  or  more  is  a 
splendid  place  for  fishing. 

8.  There  are  two  things  that  are  very  hard  —  to  know  what  is  right 
and  doing  it. 

9.  Bassanio  glanced  at  the  knife  in  Shylock's  belt  and  with  which 
the  pound  of  flesh  was  to  be  cut. 

10.  The  boys  saw  a  policeman  running  rapidly  and  who  seemed  to 
be  gready  excited. 

11.  The  chickens  in  the  yard  and  eating  their  breakfasts  were 
startled  by  a  hawk. 

12.  The  little  visitor  astonished  but  who  was  not  at  all  satisfied  re- 
newed his  questions. 

13.  To  visit  in  the  country,  to  have  no  chores,  and  eating  what  you 
want  three  times  a  day  Fred  thought  an  ideal  vacation. 

14.  The  average  farmer  puts  these  cattle  in  a  lot  where  there  is 
plenty  of  water  and  handy  to  corn. 

15.  He  tried  the  work  on  a  railroad  section,  to  drive  a  delivery 
wagon  for  a  grocer,  and  hauling  sand  from  the  river ;  but  he  was  not 
strong  enough  for  these  jobs. 

16.  A  man  seeking  work  and  who  really  wishes  to  find  it  cannot 
always  be  successful. 

17.  "  Kidnapped  "  is  an  exciting  story  by  Stevenson  and  which  I 
enjoyed  almost  as  much  as  I  did  "  Treasure  Island." 


UNITY  163 

18.  By  reading  in  my  odd  minutes  and  when  I  finish  my  lessons  at 
night,  I  have  finished  five  books  in  the  past  month. 

19.  There  was  an  attraction  about  his  whole  appearance  not  easily 
escaping  attention,  and  which  was  derived  from  the  combination  of 
fearless  frankness  and  good-humor. 

20.  The  host  opened  a  door  and  showed  his' guest  the  interior  of  a 
chamber,  small,  indeed,  but  which,  being  clean  and  in  good  order, 
seemed  a  little  palace. 

21.  The  problems  that  he  invented  and  which,  in  the  course  of  time, 
we  solved,  were  always  difficult. 

EXERCISE  150  —  Written 
REVISING   THEMES   FOR  CO-ORDINATION 

Take  two  early  themes  and  underscore  in  red  ink  each 
and.    See  if  it  is  correctly  used. 

If  one  listens  to  the  conversation  about  him  or  to  any 
extended  recitation  in  class,  or  if  he  reads  what  inexperienced 
people  write,  he  will  find  aud  recurring  a  surprising  number 
of  times.  Sometimes,  of  course,  it  is  necessary  and  useful ; 
sometimes  it  is  used  in  place  of  a  connective  that  would  in- 
dicate a  different  relation  of  the  elements  ;  and  sometimes  it 
is  simply  the  sign  of  a  bad  habit,  being  used  to  join  a  new 
statement  to  what  precedes,  regardless  of  whether  a  connective 
is  needed  or  not. 

EXERCISE  151  — Oro/ 

AVOIDING   UNNECESSARY    REPETITION   OF  A.VB 

In  the  following  passage  decide  whether  each  and  is 
necessary.  Can  you  guess  why  the  writer  used  it  ?  Revise 
the  passage. 

Yesterday  morning  at  school  we  had  a  lecture  by  a  visitor  and  he 
told  us  of  the  difference  between  schools  now  and  in  his  boyhood. 


1 64  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

Now,  he  said,  we  have  comfortable  desks  and  fifty  years  ago  the 
children  had  only  teachers.  And  so  we  ought  to  be  well  contented 
in  school  to-day.  And  after  he  went  out  of  the  room  our  teacher 
asked  us  how  we  liked  the  lecture  and  we  told  her  that  we  enjoyed 
it  very  much. 

EXERCISE  152  —  Written 
REPORTING   AN   INTER\TE\Y 

Talk  to  some  man  —  a  postman,  a  fireman,  a  blacksmith, 
a  dairyman,  for  instance  —  about  his  duties  ;  and  then  write 
a  summary  of  what  you'  learn.  Be  definite ;  see  that  each 
paragraph  is  all  about  one  thing ;  and  revise  )-our  theme 
thoroughly  for  sentence  unity. 

EXERCISE  153  —  Oral 
USING  Brr  CORRECTLY 

Give  sentences  in  which  the  following  elements  are  effec- 
tively compounded  by  dut :  the  whole  sentence,  the  predicate, 
adjective  modifier,  adverb  modifier. 

EXERCISE  154  —  Oral 
CHOOSING  AA'D  OR  BC'T 

Sometimes  a  writer  will  overwork  d^/f  ;  usually,  however,  he 
fails  to  use  it  when  he  should.  In  the  following  passage 
decide  carefully  the  relation  of  the  elements  on  each  side  of 
the  blanks  :  if  there  is  a  contrast,  insert  but ;  if  the  two  ele- 
ments are  worked  together  to  secure  one  effect,  insert  and. 

Mowgli,  the  son  of  a  poor  woodchopper,  the  foster-child  of  the 
wolves,  is  the  central  figure  in  both  the  "  Jungle  Book  "  and  the 
"  Second  Jungle  Book."'  The  wolves  who  found  him  as  a  little 
baby who  saved  his  life  were  called  the  gray  brothers.    Other 


UNITY  165 

animals  that  he  knew  in  the  jungle  were :  Baloo,  the  bear,  who 
taught  him  the  law  of  the  jungle ;   Shere  Khan,  the  tiger,  whom 

men  feared who,  on  the  other  hand,  feared  men ;  Kaa,  the 

wily powerful  snake  ;  many  others.    The  life  in  the  cave 

of  the  wolves •  out  in  the  jungle  was  all  that  Mowgli  knew ; 

when  he  grew  up  he  felt  a  longing  to  return  to  his  own  kind. 

He  would  go  to  the  edge  of  the  jungle watch  the  men  at 

work,  when  he  finally  got  into  a  house   he   felt  suffocated 

afraid.    The  story  called  "  The  Spring  Running "  is  to  me 

pathetic, some  of  the  others  are  very  exciting. 


d.  Shifts  in  construction.  Any  change  in  form  of  expres- 
sion is  likely  to  cause  a  corresponding  change  in  the  impres- 
sions on  the  reader,  and  consequently  tends,  unless  skilfully 
managed,  to  violate  unity.  When  the  shift  is  accidental,  the 
effect  is  almost  surely  bad.  For  instance  —  and  in  this  case 
no  writer,  however  skilful,  may  violate  the  rule  —  if  we  write 
Each  of  the  boys,  the  subject  of  thought  is  singular,  and  we 
must  use  the  singular  number  in  any  future  reference.  The 
sentence  will  be  completed  thus  :  "'  Each  of  the  boys  took 
Jiis  book." 

I .  Unity  in  gender  and  n?tinbej'.  One  of  the  commonest 
changes  of  construction  that  violate  the  unity  of  impression 
is  this  shift  of  the  number  of  the  subject.  Closely  allied  to 
it  is  the  shift  of  gender.  We  must  learn  and  keep  in  mind 
that  eaeh,  every,  evetybody,  one,  eitJier,  and  neither  when 
used  as  pronouns  are  singular,  and  when  used  as  adjectives 
they  indicate  that  their  substantives  are  singular.  None,  how- 
ever, is  used  in  either  a  singular  or  a  plural  sense.  When  two 
singular  substantives  are  connected  by  or  or  nor  the  predicate 
is  singular,  because  each  substantive  is  thought  of  separately. 
All  the  pronouns  mentioned  above  take  their  gender  from 
the  antecedent  noun,  whether  it  is  expressed   or   implied. 


1 66  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

Whenever  a  pronoun  refers  to  one  of  these  words,  then,  it 
must  be  singular  and  of  the  same  gender  as  the  antecedent. 
As  there  is  in  EngHsh  no  common  gender  personal  pronoun 
for  the  third  person  singular,  the  masculine  form  is  used. 
Any  predicate  of  these  words  will,  of  course,  be  in  the 
singular  number. 

EXERCISE  155  —  Oral 
SECURING  UNITY   IN   NUMBER  AFTER  EACII,   ETC. 

Supply  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  proper 
pronouns  or  verbs  : 

1.  Every  pupil •  doing own  work. 

2.  I  have  two  tennis  rackets,  either  of  which at  your  service. 

3.  Each  of  the  stars  in  the  heavens following own  orbit. 

4.  Everybody satisfied  with  what  the  committee  did  for . 

5.  One  should  be  careful  to  see  that own  work  is  free  from 

careless  errors. 

6.  None  of  the  boats ready  to  sail. 

7.  There  none  in   the  harbor  this  morning;   they  have  all 

sailed  away. 

8.  Neither  of  the  boys  willing  to  have  fortune  told  by 

the  gipsy. 

9.  The  teacher  told  each  of  the  pupils  what  topic should  study. 

10.  If  any  boy  or  girl lost pencil,  I  will  return  it  to 

when calls  at  the  desk. 

11.  Every  girl  should  keep  in  mind duties  as  well  as rights. 

12.  Any  one  can  learn  to  write  correcdy  if will  only  take  pains. 

13.  Every  pupil  in  the  class  decided  to  use  the  same  subject  for 
theme. 


14.  Let  all  the  boys  select partners  and  then  each  will  be  told 

what  • shall  do. 

15.  This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  books  that ever  been 

published. 

16.  I  heard  at  the  concert  one  of  the  finest  singers  that ever 

come  to  America. 


UNITY  167 

Writers  both  young  and  old  are  not  infrequently  troubled 
by  the  number  of  a  collective  noun.  This,  you  may  recall,  is 
a  noun  singular  in  form  but  denoting  a  number  of  individuals, 
as  committee,  herd,  flock,  bevy.  When  the  emphasis  is  on 
the  individuals  the  noun  is,  of  course,  plural ;  when  on  the 
collective  unit,  singular.  For  instance,  "  The  committee  as  a 
body  makes  its  report  "  ;  but  "'  The  committee  individually 
sign  their  names  to  the  paper."  If  the  number  of  a  collective 
noun  shifts  in  a  sentence,  unity  is  endangered. 

EXERCISE  156  — Ora/ 

SECURING  UNITY  OF  NUMBER  WITH   COLLECTIVE  NOUNS 

In  the  following  sentences,  decide  first  whether  the  col- 
lective noun  emphasizes  the  individuals  or  the  group,  and 
then  supply  verbs  or  pronouns  of  the  proper  number. 

1.  The  jury  handed  in verdict  at  noon  and discharged  by 

the  judge. 

2.  The  jury  left  town  in  the  afternoon,  being  eager  to  reach 

homes  before  Christmas  Day. 

3.  The  faculty  wrote names  on  my  programme,  which  I  am 

keeping  as  a  souvenir. 

4.  The  class  became  eager  to  tell opinions. 

5.  The  crowd  pressed way  close  up  to  the  jail. 

6.  The  school  of  fish  had  circled  about  our  boat  and  I  could  see 
spotted  backs  very  plainly. 

7.  Every  pupil  tried  to  make reading  so  good  that  he  could  com- 
pel the  class  to  lay  aside books  and  listen  entirely  to  him. 

8.  The  local  committee failed  to  agree. 

9.  This  team  of  horses won  every  prize  offered  at  the  county  fair. 

10.  The  class ■  chosen colors. 

11.  That  gang  of  workmen  over  on  the  hillside  (work,  works)  as  if 
were  some  great  machine. 

12.  The  tribe  would  at  that  time  lay  down  lives  for  Father 

Hennepin. 


1 68  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

2.  Unity  in  subject,  voice,  and  mood.  As  there  should  be 
no  change  in  the  number  of  a  collective  noun  in  a  unit  of  ex- 
pression, neither  should  there  be  an  unnecessary  change  of 
subject.  We  may  write  "a  man  .  .  .  he,"  or  "any  one  .  .  .  he," 
or  "  either  .  .  .  she  "  ;  but  not  "  one  .  ,  .  you  "  or  a  "  per- 
son .  .  .  you."  Similarly  it  is  confusing  to  find,  "After  the 
book  had  been  read  through,  John  noticed  on  the  table  the 
letter  which  had  been  given  him  to  mail."  It  is  just  as  easy, 
and  far  more  effective  to  write,  "  After  having  read  the  book 
through,  John  noticed  on  the  table  the  letter  which  he  had 
been  given  to  mail," 

Connected  with  the  change  of  subject  is  often  the  unneces- 
sary shift  of  voice  in  the  predicate.  "  We  went  to  the  party 
and  had  a  good  time"  gives  one  impression,  whereas  "We 
went  to  the  party  and  a  pleasant  time  was  had  "  fails  of  unity 
because  it  scatters  the  reader's  attention,  besides  being  in- 
definite. Similarly  if  a  writer  uses  one  mood  and  then,  with- 
out apparent  reason,  shifts  to  another,  the  reader's  attention 
is  distracted  and  he  does  not  get  one  impression.  For  instance, 
"  Pour  one  cup  of  granulated  sugar  into  the  \vater,  and  then 
you  should  add  a  few  drops  of  vanilla  "  is  bad  ;  while  "  Pour 
one  cup  of  granulated  sugar  into  the  water  and  add  a  few 
drops  of  vanilla  "  has  unity  and  consequent  effectiveness. 

EXERCISE  157  — Oral 
UNIFYING   SUBJECT  AND  VERB  FORMS 

Decide  where  unity  is  violated  in  the  following  sentences 
by  unnecessary  shift  of  subject  or  verb  form,  and  then  revise  : 

1.  A  traveller  in  Europe  receives  many  courtesies  from  the  railway 
employees,  but  you  must  obey  all  their  regulations. 

2.  Reverend  Julius  Parker  married  them  at  high  noon  and  imme- 
diately afterward  they  started  on  their  wedding  tour  to  Canada. 


UNITY  169 

3.  Take  pains  to  dampen  the  cloth  with  a  sponge  and  then  the 
iron  must  be  hot. 

4.  If  any  one  will  read  Poe's  Tales,  especially  "  The  Gold  Bug," 
"  The  Mystery  of  Marie  Roget,''  "  The  Murders  of  the  Rue  Morgue," 
and  "  The  Black  Cat,"  you  will  wonder  how  you  could  ever  have  liked 
dime  novels. 

5.  Poe  writes  of  mysteries  in  a  clever  way  and  we  are  held  from  the 
beginning  of  his  stories  to  the  end. 

6.  When  I  began  to  think  over  the  qualities  a  hero  should  have,  one 
was  found  in  the  very  town  in  which  I  live. 

7.  Cooper  takes  a  long  time  to  start  his  stories,  but  they  are  written 
so  that  we  boys  like  them. 

8.  First,  you  should  select  a  good  background  in  a  mild  light ;  then 
focus  the  camera  before  withdrawing  the  slide  over  the  plate. 

9.  The  air  in  the  dungeon  was  damp,  and  we  read  in  the  poem  that 
the  prisoner  was  kept  here  many  years. 

10.  We  boys  got  up  early  and  went  to  the  station,  where  it  was  found 
that  the  train  was  an  hour  late. 

11.  One  had  better  be  ahead  of  time,  however,  than  too  late,  for  you 
never  know  what  may  happen  to  delay  you. 

12.  The  girls  sank  into  chairs,  for  the  long  walk  in  the  fields  had 
exhausted  them. 

13.  Mrs.  Lawrence  gave  a  party  to  the  senior  class  and  delicious 
refreshments  were  served. 

14.  After  the  garden  had  been  spaded,  Sam  sat  down  to  rest  before 
the  wood  was  cut,  for  his  mother  required  him  to  do  that  work  too. 

15.  The  boys  turned  over  a  new  leaf,  and  hard  study  was  done  after 
that. 

3.  Unity  in  tense.  Man}^  problems  of  unity  in  tense  are 
rather  difficult,  but  the  most  common  violations  of  unity  in 
this  respect  can  be  easily  avoided.  The  simple  rule  is  "  Keep 
to  past  or  present  time  throughout."  If  you  have  difficulty 
in  obeying  this  rule,  study  the  lists  of  past  and  present  verb 
forms  and  test  your  work. 


I/O  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  158  — Ora/ 
RECOGNIZING  VIOLATIONS   OF   UNITY   IN   TENSE 

Name  the  tense  of  each  verb  in  this  composition  ;  then 
revise,  unifying  the  time  as  past  or  as  present. 

A   STORM  ON   THE   SEA 

The  deck  is  crowded  with  people.  In  the  distance  I  see  the  port. 
The  sky  is  murky  and  the  wind  is  blowing  very  hard.  The  furious 
lightning  tears  the  sky  and  the  thunder  roars.  The  masts  of  the 
ship  were  down.  The  tempestuous  waves  dash  up  on  the  side  of 
the  ship.  Everybody  was  horror-stricken.  The  storm  rages  on 
furiously  for  about  an  hour.  The  storm  was  so  bad  that  it  is  in- 
describable. When  it  quiets  down  a  little  the  sailors  look  to  see 
if  the  ship  is  damaged  very  badly.  They  find  out  that  the  prow 
of  the  ship  is  damaged. 

EXERCISE  159  —  Oral  and  Written 
REVIEW 

In  these  sentences  make  whatever  changes  are  necessary 
to  secure  unity,  and  be  ready  to  explain  why  these  changes 
were  necessary, 

1.  The  girl  went  to  the  board  and  she  had  her  problem  correctly  solved. 

2.  Bob  Son  of  Battle  had  one  rival,  a  dog  called  Red  Wall,  which 
was  owned  by  McAdam. 

3.  We  boys  used  to  play  all  the  morning  in  our  back  yard,  which 
was  big  enough  for  us  and  our  neighbors  played  there,  too. 

4.  We  may  prove  our  loyalty  to  truth  in  other  places  than  a  battle- 
field ;  to  stand  for  truth  in  everyday  life  is  one  of  the  things  an  ideal 
man  must  do. 

5.  Some  of  the  Europeans  can  come  to  America  and  make  more 
money  than  in  their  native  countries,  and  a  great  many  laboring  people 
in  the  United  States  are  foreigners. 

6.  This  stirring  story,  which  Scott  is  said  to  have  written  in  six  weeks 
because  he  needed  the  money,  interested  me  gready. 


UNITY  171 

7.  I  untied  the  silk  string  and  pulled  it  up,  drawing  into  the  cell  first 
the  cord  and  then  the  twine  and  finally  the  rope,  which  I  tied  to  the  window 
sill,  and  then  I  slid  down  the  rope  and  made  a  very  fortunate  escape. 

8.  The  girls  in  the  closet  giggled  so  that  the  others  had  no  trouble 
in  finding  them,  after  which  they  all  had  a  romp  over  the  old  house. 

9.  Mrs.  Turk  claims  that  her  ancestors  were  in  America  before  1675 
and  she  is  one  of  the  neatest  housekeepers  you  ever  saw. 

10.  The  lecturer  showed  how  Franklin  first  proved  the  identity  of 
electricity  and  lightning,  and  was  that  not  a  great  feat  ? 

11.  "  Master  Skylark  "  is  an  interesting  story,  being  written  to  show 
life  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

12.  We  could  not  sow  the  kind  of  radishes  that  we  had  planned,  as 
the  grocer  had  sold  all  of  the  seed,  another  school  having  made  a 
garden,  too. 

13.  Colonel  Carter  is  a  lovable  man,  being  a  prominent  character  in 
several  of  Hopkinson  Smith's  stories. 

14.  We  are  glad  to  hear  of  John's  recovery  from  typhoid  fever,  which 
is  a  dangerous  disease. 

15.  The  exercise  was  hard  and  no  one  of  the  class  finished  it  in  time. 

16.  Laura  grew  quite  fond  of  the  hen,  and  if  you  nurse  a  sick  animal 
for  a  week  you  will  do  the  same  thing  yourself. 

17.  Harold  was  well-trained  in  obedience,  his  brothers  all  being  older 
than  he. 

18.  Having  finished  the  book,  I  suggested  to  the  other  girls  that  we 
act  out  the  story ;  so  we  did. 

19.  We  played  that  the  couch  was  the  porch,  that  the  chairs  were 
passing  automobiles,  and  we  thought  it  good  fun. 

20.  As  her  share  of  the  picnic  dinner,  Alice  brought  a  cake,  which 
we  ate. 

EXERCISE  160  -  Written 

TEST   THEME 

Write  on  one  of  the  topics  outlined  in  Exercises  125-128, 
and  apply  all  that  you  have  learned  about  unity.  If  you  have 
material  enough  to  expand  this  topic  to  two  or  three  para- 
graphs, you  may  do  so ;  but  be  sure  that  each  paragraph  has 
unity,  and  that  all  belong  under  your  title. 


1/2  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

RULES   AND   EXERCISES    IN    GOOD    FORM  ^ 

I.  Punctuation 

Rule  25.  Use  a  comma  before  ''  ajid,"  ^'  but,''  and  '"^  or" 
"when  they  stand  betzoeen  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence, 
7tulcss  these  parts  are  very  short  or  very  closely  connected 
in  tJiongJit^  or  ?/nless  a  heavier  mark  is  needed. 

Exercise  A 

Write  from  dictation  or  from  memory : 

Buy  the  truth,  and  sell  it  not. 

Cast  out  the  scorner,  and  contention  shall  go  out. 

A  good  name  is  rather  to  be  chosen  than  great  riches,  and  loving  favour 
rather  than  silver  and  gold. 

Rejoice  not  when  thine  enemy  falleth,  and  let  not  thine  heart  be  glad 
when  he  stumbleth.  —  Proverbs 

Integrity  may  not  be  all  of  character,  but  no  character  is  noble  without 
it.  —  Emerso.n" 

Rule  26.  Use  commas  to  set  off  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
thrown  in,  or  placed  out  of  their  natural  order,  or  somezvJiat 
separated  in  thought  f'om  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Note  i.  A  prepositional  phrase  is  never  set  off  by  commas 
unless  for  some  special  reason  of  clearness  or  emphasis. 

Exercise  B 

Write  from  dictation  : 

The  brimming  brook,  as  it  wound  towards  me  through  the  meads, 
seemed  to  tremble  on  the  verge  of  overflowing,  as  the  crown  of  wine 
in  a  glass  rises  yet  does  not  spill.  Level  with  the  green  grass,  the  water 
gleamed  as  though  polished  wher6  it  flowed  smoothly,  crossed  with 
the  dark  shadows  of  willows  which  leaned  over  it.  15y  the  bridge,  where 
the  breeze  rushed  through  the  arches,  a  ripple  flashed  back  the  golden 
rays.  The  surface  by  the  shore  slipped  towards  a  side  hatch  and  passed 
over  in  a  liquid  curve,  clear  and  unvarying,  as  if  of  solid  crystal,  till 
shattered  on  the  stones,  where  the  air  caught  up  and  played  with  the 
sound  of  the  bubbles  as  they  broke. 

RICH.A.RD  Jefferies,  "The  Brook" 

1  Continued  from  page  13S. 


UNITY  173 

Note  2.  A  subject  or  an  object  is  almost  never  separated  by  a 
comma  from  the  verb. 

Note  3.  A  limiting,  or  restrictive,  adjective  clause  is  never  set 
off  by  commas ;  a  purely  descriptive,  or  non-restrictive,  clause  is 
always  set  off  by  commas. 

Examples  :  A  man  who  wishes  to  tell  the  truth  must  learn  first  to  see 
the  truth. 

Cyrano,  whose  nose  was  absurdly  long,  is  heroic  throughout  the  play. 

Exercise  C 

Insert  commas  where  they  are  needed,  and  give  your  reasons. 
If  two  interpretations  of  a  sentence  are  possible,  give  both. 

1.  Hardly  a  man  is  now  alive 

\Vho  remembers  that  famous  day  and  year. 

2.  He  described  to  me  his  experience  which  was  very  unusual. 

3.  Thackeray  who  is  my  favorite  author  wrote  "  Vanity  Fair." 

4.  In  North  America  the  layers  of  the  lithosphere  which  contain  the 
oldest  Cambrian  fossils  exist  only  near  the  eastern  and  western  borders  of 
the  continent. 

5.  There  arose  in  the  Hellenic  cities  a  rich  and  many-sided  culture 
which  became  the  precious  legacy  of  Greece  to  the  world  at  large. 

6.  The  officers  who  are  engaged  in  this  work  are  to  administer  the 
entire  government. 

7.  The  old  lady  who  has  lived  in  the  house  for  half  a  century  has  moved. 

8.  In  the  beginning  this  surprised  even  his  mother  who  knew  him  so  well. 

9.  During  the  long  hours  of  their  confinement  he  told  his  friend  the 
story  of  his  life  which  was  very  romantic. 

10.  Thoreau  declares  that  it  takes  two  to  speak  truth  —  one  to  speak 
and  another  to  hear. 

11.  Those  who  purchase  goods  from  abroad  pay  for  them  by  buying 
drafts,  or  postoffice,  express,  or  cable  money  orders. 

12.  On  the  twenty-second  of  June  the  new  school  building  which  had 
never  yet  been  used  was  struck  by  lightning. 

13.  Yellowstone  Park  which  is  noted  for  its  geysers  is  national  property^ 

14.  Once  as  they  sat  by  their  evening  iire,  there  silently  entered 
Into  the  little  camp  an  Indian  woman  whose  features 

Bore  deep  traces  of  sorrow. 

15.  In  the  studio  the  materials  which  are  used  are  of  less  consequence 
than  is  the  workmanship. 


174  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFflON 

16.  Those  things  which  are  most  familiar  to  us  are  apt  to  be  regarded 
with  least  wonder  and  to  occasion  the  least  thought. 

17.  Stevenson  says  that  it  is  lawful  to  pray  God  that  we  be  not  led  into 
temptations,  but  not  lawful  to  skulk  from  those  that  come  to  us. 

Exercise  D 

Memorize  and  write : 

If  thou  faint  in  the  day  of  adversity,  thy  strength  is  small. 

As  in  water  face  answereth  to  face,  so  the  heart  of  man  to  man. 

Whoso  stoppeth  his  ears  at  the  cry  of  the  poor,  he  also  shall  cry  himself 
but  shall  not  be  heard. 

He  that  loveth  pureness  of  heart,  for  the  grace  of  his  lips  the  king  shall 
be  his  friend. 

Even  a  child  is  known  by  his  doings,  whether  his  work  be  pure,  and 
whether  it  be  right. 

Pride  goeth  before  destruction,  and  an  haughty  spirit  before  a  fall. 

There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath  nothing. 

As  vinegar  to  the  teeth,  and  as  smoke  to  the  eyes,  so  is  the  sluggard  to 
them  that  send  him. 

Remove  not  the  ancient  landmark,  which  thy  fathers  have  set. 

He  that  answereth  a  matter  before  he  heareth  it,  it  is  folly  and  shame 
unto  him. 

If  to  do  were  as  easy  as  to  know  what  were  good  to  do,  chapels  had 
been  churches,  and  poor  men's  cottages  princes'  palaces. 

Exercise  E 

What  special  rules  for  the  comma  are  really  included  under 
Rule  26  ?    Review  and  recite  them,  illustrating  each. 

II.  Correct  Usage 

Exercise  F 

The  forms  of  the  verb  lay  are  :  lay,  lays,  present ;  laying,  present 
participle;  laid,  past;  laid,  past  participle.  It  is  always  transitive, 
meaning  to  "  put  "  or  "  place  "  or  "  make  lie."  Read  aloud,  filling 
the  blanks  with  suitable  objects. 

1.  He  was  laying  the in  front  of  the  church. 

2.  We  laid  the on  the  rug. 

3.  They  always  lay  the in  the  parlor  first. 


UNITY  175 

4.  We  have  laid  the on  the  bed. 

5.  Where  did  you  lay  the  • ? 

6.  Nobody  has  disturbed  the that  I  laid  there  yesterday. 

7.  We  will  lay  the here. 

8.  Have  you  been  laying  the in  this  dress  .^ 

9.  They  laid  out  the in  the  garden. 

10.   The  children  laid  their on  the  desks. 


Exercise  G 

Read  aloud,  filling  the  blanks  with  forms  of  the  verb  lay  : 

1.  Have  you out  the  tennis  court  ? 

2.  We our  books  on  the  bench. 

3.  The  hens  have  ■ •  well  for  us  all  through  the  cold  weather. 

4.  The  old  man his  hand  on  the  child's  head. 

5.  He  has  much  goods up  for  many  years. 

6.  They  have up  treasures  for  the  future. 

7.  He the  paper  on  the  table. 

8.  The  monkeys hold  of  him. 

9.  He himself  down  in  the  shade  of  a  poplar. 

10.   She her  finger  on  her  lips. 

Exercise  H 

The  verb  lie  —  parts,  lie,  lies,  lying,  lay,  lain  —  means  "  to  rest  in 
a  horizontal  position."  It  is  intransitive.  The  past  form  lay  is  like 
the  present  form  of  another  verb,  and  this  resemblance  causes 
many  mistakes.  Remember  that  lie  has  no  such  form  as  lays,  and 
that  lay,  meaning  "  to  rest,"  is  in  the  past  tense.  Notice  that  no 
form  of  this  verb  contains  the  letter  d.  Fill  the  blanks  with  lie,  lies, 
lay  (past),  or  lain. 

1.  The  books  have there  all  night. 

2.  We  laid  ourselves  down  in  the  long  grass,   and  there  we  for 

an  hour. 

3.  The  meadow to  the  eastward. 

4.  His  cap  always  on  the  floor';  this  morning  his  coat  also  

under  the  table. 

5.  The  city on  the  left  bank  of  the  river. 

6.  There  they stunned  and  helpless. 


176  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

7.  On  a  summer  day  have  you  ever in  a  hollow  and  looked  up  at 

the  sky  ? 

8.  Yesterday  I in  my  hollow  and  mused. 

9.  The  snow ten  inches  deep  over  the  garden. 

10.  I  had there  motionless  for  five  minutes  when  a  hand  was  laid 

upon  my  arm. 

11.  We  like  the  garden  to on  a  southern  slope  where  the  sun 

on  it  all  day  long. 

12.  The  dog at  the  foot  of  the  baby's  bed  all  night. 

13.  He so  still  that  I  was  frightened. 

14.  The  bird on  its  back,  its  little  claws  stiff  and  cold. 

15.  We   have  in  those  very  pine  woods  where  he  at  this 

moment. 

16.  This  land to  the  northward. 

17.  The  tree  has where  it  fell. 

18.  The  tree where  it  fell. 


Exercise  I 

Pill  the  blanks  with  the  proper  forms  of  lie  or  lay. 

1.  I  have  been  watching  that  star  drop   down  along  the  tree 

trunk. 

2.  If  you  will where  I  have you  will  see  it,  too. 

3.  The  country  that south  of  this  town  is  all out  in  a  park. 

4.  They no  stress  on  the  matters  that nearest  their  hearts. 

5.  Feeling  that on  the  surface  easily  breaks  into  froth. 

6.  I that  kindness  to  you. 

7.  We  have the  fir6  in  the  grate. 

8.  The  apples on  the  ground  for  a  month. 

9.  We them  by  for  the  winter. 

10.  No  linen  was in  the  cedar  chest. 

11.  The  rose-leaves  have among  the  pillow  slips  for  years. 

12.  The  great  brute his  muzzle  in  my  hand. 

13.  They  are the  corner-stone. 

14.  We  were by  the  stone  wall  watching  a  cricket. 

15.  The  lost  ball  was at  my  feet. 

16.  The  leaves  were in  drifts  against  the  steps. 

17.  He  had  been the  new  walk. 

18.  They our  floors  all  uneven. 

19.  He  was in  the  hammock. 

20.  Do  you  like  to in  bed  in  the  morning.' 


UNITY  177 

21.  I  had  never hold  of  such  a  slippery  thing  before.   , 

22.  Have  you  still  for  fifteen  minutes   as  the   doctor  said  you 

must? 

23.  down,  Rover. 

24.  the  table  for  six. 

25.  my  dress  in  the  drawer,  and  let  the  cloak where  it  is. 

26.  Now  I me  down  to  sleep. 

27.  the  child  in  my  arms. 

28.  He  is in  an  uncomfortable  position. 

29.  Let  him still  as  long  as  he  wishes. 

30.  Let  them the  carpet  soon. 


Exercise  J 

Use  set  in  the  sense  of  "  put,"  "  place,"  "  make,"  "  sit,"  and  raise 
in  the  sense  of  "  make  rise,"  —  ahnost  always  with  objects.  Supply 
the  proper  forms  to  fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  We the  bread  at  six  o'clock. 

2.  He  always his  hat  to  his  mother's  friends. 

3.  They unusually  fine  tomatoes. 

4.  We  have asparagus  successfully. 

5.  They the  table  for  ten. 

6.  They  had the  lamp  too  near  the  curtain. 

7.  Can  you us  right  ? 

8.  He himself  up  as  the  leader. 

Exercise  K 

Use  sit  in  the  sense  of  "  rest,"  >-ise  in  the  sense  of  "  stand  up," 
"get  up,"  "move  upward,"  —  always  without  objects.  Fill  the 
blanks  with  the  proper  forms  of  sit,  set,  rise,  raise. 

1.  The  bread well  last  night. 

2.  We at  six  in  summer. 

3.  The  sun at  seven. 

4.  The  bread  slowly. 

5.  No  one any  good  tomatoes  in  our  neighborhood. 

6.  down  and  rest. 

7.  Won't  you with  us  longer .'' 

8.  We  used  to about  the  fire  and  tell  stories. 


178  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

8.  I  was on  the  porch  reading  while  John  was out  plants. 

9.  Come  into  the room. 

10.  That  child  never still. 

11.  The  post  does  not  firmly  in  place:  it  was  not  properly  , 

for  I  can it  out  of  the  hole  several  inches. 

12.  the  bundle  on  the  step,  and here  in  the  shade. 

13.  Have  you  been in  the  orchard  ? 

14.  They on  the  fence  like  blackbirds. 

15.  No  one  had in  that  chair  since  grandfather  died. 

16.  We  never on  the  floor  to  play  jack-stones. 

17.  Have  you early  every  morning  this  week  ? 

18.  The  bread  has almost  to  the  top  of  the  pan ;  shall  I  it  in 

a  cooler  place  ? 

19.  The  yeast  the  bread ;  the  bread . 

20.  People corn,  oats,  pigs,  and  other  things  ;  but  they  rear  children. 


Exercise  L 

Try  to  make  four  sensible  sentences,  each  containing  all  five 
forms  of  one  of  the  following  verbs  :  /ie,  Ia\\  sit,  set.  To  accustom 
yourself  to  the  correct  forms,  read  the  sentences  aloud. 

Exercise  M 

Learn  the  following  rules  : 

1.  Use  shall  with  /  and  wc,  7c>i/l  with  all  other  subjects  to 
express  future  time. 

2.  Use  70111  with  /  and  7c<e,  shall  with  all  other  subjects  to 
express  purpose,  promise,  determination,  or  command. 

3.  In  questions  use  shall  or  7vill  according  to  the  answer 
desired. 

4.  In  quoting  indirectly  use  the  form  employed  by  the  person 
quoted. 

5.  Never  use  unll  with  /or  7ve,  not  even  in  questions  or  quota- 
tions, unless  you  wish  to  assert  some  exercise  of  will  power,  as  in 
purpose,  promise,  or  intention. 


UNITY  179 

Exercise  N 

Read  this  paragraph  on  shall  and  7oiU  and  be  ready  to  explain, 
with  illustrations  of  your  own,  the  use  of  these  two  words : 

In  the  earliest  form  of  our  language  shall  denoted  obligation, 
will  denoted  intention  or  wish.  We  now  use  these  words  to  denote 
merely  future  time  —  shall  with  /  or  lue,  zvill  with  other  subjects. 
We  also  use  them,  in  the  opposite  order,  with  somewhat  their  origi- 
nal meanings  —  I  or  we  will,  other  people  shall.  The  reasons  for 
these  distinctions  seem  to  be  as  follows :  If  we  assert  obligation 
of  ourselves,  as  I  shall  go,  we  expect  to  fulfill  the  obligation,  so 
that  the  verb  has  come  to  express  mere  futurity ;  but,  if  we  assert 
obligation  of  another,  we  imply  that  some  force  will,  if  necessary, 
be  exercised  to  compel  him  to  fulfill  the  obligation,  as  he  shall  go. 
This  notion  is  so  strong  that  it  has  not  been  softened  by  time,  and 
the  verb  shall  is  here  the  principal  verb.  If  we  assert  intention  of 
ourselves,  as  I  will  go,  we  assert  our  own  will ;  but  if  we  say  that 
another  will  go,  we  do  not  ordinarily  assert  his  will  in  the  matter ; 
we  merely  assume  that  the  going  is  his  intention,  and  assert  that 
as  a  future  fact.  The  verb  shall,  then,  with  subjects  other  than  / 
and  we,  denotes  obligation,  or  a  promise,  or  determination.  The 
verb  will  occasionally  has  this  strong  meaning  even  with  other 
subjects,  as  in  "  None  are  so  deaf  as  those  who  will  not  hear."  In 
usage  the  commonest  mistake  is  the  substitution  of  will  for  shall 
to  show  merely  future  time  with  /  or  we. 

Exercise  0 

Read  aloud  the  following,  being  careful  not  to  emphasize  the 
words  shall  and  will.  Supply  in  place  of  go  any  ten  other  verbs 
that  will  make  sense  in  all  sentences.  Read  each  aloud,  thinking 
of  the  future  time. 

I  shall  go  to-morrow.  We  shall  go  to-morrow. 

You  will  go  to-morrow.  You  will  go  to-morrow. 

He  will  go  to-morrow.  They  will  go  to-morrow. 


l8o  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

Exercise  P 

Read  aloud  the  following,  emphasizing  shall  and  will.  Supply 
also  ten  other  verbals  in  place  of  go  and  read  aloud. 

I  will  go.  We  will  go. 

You  shall  go.  You  shall  go. 

He  shall  go.  They  shall  go. 

Exercise  Q 

Write  twenty-five  sentences,  using  shall,  with  /or  zve  as  subject, 
combined  with  twenty-five  different  verbs.  Make  sentences  such 
as  you  would  be  likely  to  use  often.  Read  aloud  to  train  the  ear 
to  the  correct  form  ;  do  not  emphasize  the  shall.  Be  sure  that  shall 
expresses  merely  future  time. 

Exercise  R 

Exchange  shall  and  7vill  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
how  the  meaning  is  changed  : 

1.  I  shall  drown  :  nobody  will  help  me. 

2.  You  will  have  a  dozen  valentines. 

3.  You  will  fall  if  you  are  so  heedless. 

4.  We  shall  be  glad  to  see  you. 

5.  We  shall  forget  it  all  before  morning. 

6.  lie  will  stay  after  school. 

•     Exercise  S 
Tell  what  shall  and  7vill  in  the  following  sentences  express  : 

1.  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

2.  It  has  been  "  I  will "  and  "  I  won't "  with  me  all  my  life. 

3.  He  will  come  when  you  are  ready  for  us. 

4.  He  shall  be  suitably  rewarded. 

5.  They  that  seek  me  early  shall  find  me. 

6.  Knock  and  it  shall  be  opened  unto  you. 

7.  We  will  be  happy. 

8.  I  will  never  forsake  thee. 

9.  All  the  trees  of  the  field  shall  clap  their  hands. 


UNITY  l8i 

10.  I  try  to  send  the  puppy  home,  but  he  -ifill  follow  us. 

11.  You  will  be  honored  as  you  deserve. 

12.  We  shall  return  at  six. 

13.  We  will  return  before  six  if  necessary. 

14.  I  shall  stay  a  week  longer. 

15.  He  will  stay  a  week  longer. 

16.  In  spite  of  the  cold  they  will  drive  to  the  station. 

17.  You  will  find  them  in  the  garden. 

18.  We  shall  always  be  under  obligations  to  you. 

19.  We  will  do  all  we  can  to  repay  him. 

20.  They  shall  not  disturb  you. 


Exercise  T 

Form  answers  to  the  following  questions  and  tell  whether  shall 
and  will  show  mere  futurity,  or  express  purpose,  promise,  or  de- 
termination : 

1.  Shall  you  be  at  home  to-night  ? 

2.  Will  you  take  this  package  to  the  post-office  for  me  ? 

3.  Will  the  train  be  more  than  an  hour  late .' 

4.  Shall  he  come  in .'' 

5.  Shall  I  go  with  you  t 

6.  Will  you  look  up  my  brother  in  the  city  ? 

7.  Shall  we  make  ten  sentences  ? 

8.  Shall  I  open  the  window  ? 

9.  Shall  he  shut  the  door? 
10.  Will  he  shut  the  door  ? 


Exercise  U 

Tell  what  is  said  by  each  speaker  who  is  quoted  indirectly  here  : 

1.  He  says  that  you  shall  not  go. 

2.  He  says  that  you  will  not  fail. 

3.  The  doctor  says  that  you  shall  not  come  downstairs  until  Saturday. 

4.  The  doctor  says  that  he  will  come. 

5.  The  doctor  says  that  he  shall  be  gone  an  hour. 

6.  Our  friends  asked  if  we  should  be  at  home  on  Sunday  evening. 

7.  He  promised  that  he  would  wait  for  us. 


I82 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFriOxX 


SUGGESTED  THEME  TOPICS 


1. 

Two  Birds'  Nests. 

27. 

Types   of    Street   Cars : 

2. 

The  Church  Choir. 

Advantages   and    Dis- 

3. 

Unloading  the  Circus. 

advantages. 

4. 

When  the  Train  Comes  in. 

28. 

Why  I   Prefer  the 

5. 

Kinds  of  Cowardice. 

Automobile. 

6. 

Tired. 

29. 

Tipping  in  America. 

7. 

Hot. 

30. 

How    to    Prune    Apple 

8. 

Cold. 

Trees. 

9. 

Scared. 

31. 

The  Open-Air  School. 

10. 

Quiet. 

32. 

First  Aid  to  the  Injured. 

11. 

"  Flunked." 

33. 

The  Free  Dispensary. 

12. 

Sour. 

34. 

The  Uses  of  the  News- 

13. 

Hard. 

paper  Headline. 

14. 

Slippery. 

35. 

How  we  Raised  Money 

15. 

Misty. 

for  the  Association. 

16. 

Wet. 

36. 

Changes  Needed  in  our 

17. 

Windy. 

Lunch  Room. 

18. 

Muddy. 

37. 

"  To     Barter      or     Ex- 

19. 

Homesick. 

change." 

20. 

"Dr.  Fell"  (see  "Mother 

38. 

Ideal  Characteristics   of 

Goose"). 

Dairy  (or  Beef)  Cattle. 

21. 

Mrs.  Malaprop. 

39. 

The  Silo  and  its  Value. 

22. 

On  the  Merry-go-round. 

40. 

A  Lunar  Eclipse. 

23. 

In  a  New  Hat. 

41. 

A   young    woman    must 

24. 

Tennis  :    Serving ;    Plac- 

make all  arrangements 

ing  ;  Playing  the  Net ; 

and  take  a  railroad  trip 

Strokes,  etc. 

alone.     Give    her   de- 

25. 

Baseball:  Pitching;  Play- 

tailed  instructions    re- 

ing a  Position ;    Base- 

garding   the   selection 

running  ;  Coaching. 

of  her  train,  purchase 

26. 

Golf :  Medal  and  Match 

of  ticket  and  sleeping- 

Play  ;     Driving  ;    Ap- 

car reservation,  trans- 

proaching;  Putting. 

fer  of  baggage,  etc. 

CHAPTER  VI 

VARIETY 

There  is  nothing  so  uninteresting  as  monotony  —  sameness 
in  people,  in  music,  in  scenery  bores  us,  and  our  attention 
wanders.  In  writing  or  in  speaking,  the  person  who  says  the 
unexpected  thing,  or  the  usual  thing  in  an  unexpected  way, 
the  person  who  affords  variety,  arouses  and  compels  attention 
and  interest.  We  say  that  such  a  one  is  "original";  this 
means,  at  least  in  part,  that  he  thinks  for  himself,  sees  sin- 
cerely, and  relates  what  he  sees  to  his  own  experience  ;  and 
also  that  he  has  at  command  definite  and  varied  ways  of  say- 
ing things.  If  we  think  we  are  not  endowed  with  great' 
"originality,"  all  the  more  carefully  must  we  study  variety 
in  expression  that  we  may  be  interesting. 

Mere  variety  is,  of  course,  in  itself  uninteresting  and  use- 
less, like  a  great  junk  heap.  Each  expression  must  fit  the 
thought  so  perfectly  that  it  seems  the  only  right  clothing  for 
it.  The  best  style  is  that  which  makes  the  reader  conscious 
only  of  the  thought.  But  before  we  can  attain  to  this  high 
skill  in  fitting  word  to  idea  and  sentence  form  to  thought,  we 
must  increase  the  possibility  of  choice  among  our  resources  ; 
we  must  get  a  large  stock  of  words  and  sentence  forms  and 
ways  of  developing  ideas  so  that  we  may  have  them  ready  to 
fit  any  thought  that  we  wish  to  express.  Notice  what  variety 
Mrs.  Mason  and  Stevenson  use  in  the  passages  quoted  on 
pages  49  and  5 1 .  This  chapter  is  intended  to  help  in  furnish- 
ing materials  and  tools,  with  some  practice  in  the  art  of  fitting. 

183 


1 84  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

A.    \'ARIETY  IN  WORDS 

EXERCISE  161  — Oral 

DISTIXGUISIIIXG  BETWEEN  SYNONYMS 

Some  time  ago  you  tried  an  exercise  in  distinguishing  the 
meaning  of  words.  Review  this  (page  72).  Look  up  the 
meanings  of  the  following  words ;  be  ready  to  state  the  dis- 
tinction between  them  and  to  illustrate  each  in  a  sentence.^ 

1.  Reveal,  disclose,  uncover,  discover. 

2.  Annoy,  exasperate,  irritate,  displease,  disgust,  madden. 

3.  Increase,  aggravate. 

4.  Delightful,  enchanting,  pleasing. 
5.,  Seize,  grasp,  take,  apprehend. 

6.  Residence,  house,  home,  dwelling. 

The  English  language  consists  of  more  than  400,000 
words.  A  large  proportion  of  these,  however,  are  technical 
or  out-of-date,  and  hence  not  ordinarily  of  interest.    But  even 

1  Every  one  should  learn  how  the  unabridged  dictionaries,  particularly  the  Stand- 
ard, present  S)'nonyms  and  antonyms.    Following  is  a  bibliography  of  the  subject : 

CraMe,  George :  English  Synonyms  Explained  in  .Alphabetical  Order.  New  ed., 
Harper,  1892.   $1.25.    [Contains  quotations  illustrating  the  use  of  the  words  listed.] 

Fallonvs,  Samuel:  Complete  Dictionary  of  Synonyms  and  Antonyms.  Revell, 
1SS6.  $1.00.  [Contains  in  an  appendix:  Briticisms  and  Americanisms,  preposi- 
tions discriminated,  foreign  phrases,  list  of  abbreviations,  colloquial  phrases,  and 
homonyms.] 

Fcmald,  J.  C. :  English  .Synonyms  and  .Antonyms  ;  with  notes  on  the  correct  use 
of  prepositions.    Funk  &  Wagnalls,  1896.   $1.50. 

March,  F.  A.:  A  Thesaurus  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.  Historical 
Publishing  Co.,  1902.  312.00.  [This  is  a  dictionary  of  synonyms,  antonyms,  idioms, 
foreign  phrases,  and  pronunciations.] 

Rogct,  P.  M. :  Thesaurus  of  English  Words  and  Phrases.  New  ed.,  Crowell, 
1879.^  91.50.    [Contains  extended  lists  of  homonyms  and  antonyms.] 

Smith,  C.  /.:  Synonyms  Discriminated.  New  ed..  Holt,  1896.  $2.00.  [Dis- 
criminates more  closely  than  others  as  to  the  use  of  words.  Quotations  from  standard 
writers.] 

Soulc,  Richard:  Dictionar>'  of  English  Synonyms  and  Synonymous  Parallel  Ex- 
pressions.   New  ed.,  Lippincott,  1892.   32.00. 


VARIETY  185 

so,  there  yet  remains  a  vast  store  hardly  touched  by  most  of 
us.  The  various  estimates  of  the  vocabularies  of  men  are 
frequently  misleading  in  that  they  do  not  distinguish  the  three 
vocabularies  that  every  one  has.  These  are  a  vocabulary  of 
words  that  every  one  understands  ;  another,  within  the  first, 
of  words  used  in  speaking  ;  and  a  third,  largely  overlapping 
the  second,  of  words  used  in  writing.  What  are  five  words  that 
you  use  freely  in  talking  but  never  write  .?  What  are  five  words 
that  you  might  use  in  writing  but  never  speak .'' 

To  increase  our  own  power,  then,  we  must  do  three  things  : 
(i)  increase  the  number  of  words  in  our  vocabularies,  (2)  use 
the  words  of  one  vocabular}^  freely  in  the  others,  and 
(3)  understand  exactly  what  the  words  mean  and  suggest.  In 
a  sense,  the  first  statement  alone  includes  the  other  two,  for 
we  may  increase  two  of  our  vocabularies  by  borrowing  from 
the  largest  and  from  each  other,  as  well  as  by  including  words 
unknown  before,  and,  of  course,  we  are  not  really  masters 
over  words  until  we  know  exactly  what  they  mean  and 
suggest. 

Words  usually  suggest  more  than  they  mean.  Originally 
two  words  may  have  meant  the  same  thing ;  but  for  some 
reason  or  other,  custom  associates  one  with  formal,  dignified, 
or  technical  language,  the  other  with  homely  talk.  After  a 
while,  as  their  suggestions  become  so  different,  it  is  impossible 
to  interchange  the  synonyms.  Examples  are  :  paternal  and 
fatherly ;  eioinieile  and  home;  Sabbath,  Lord's  Day,  and 
Sunday  ;  corpus  and  body.  What  a  different  suggestion,  even 
though  the  meaning  be  unchanged,  comes  from  substituting 
in  a  sentence  one  of  these  words  for  its  synonym  !  Note,  too, 
the  gain  or  loss  of  suggestion  resulting  from  a  change  of 
"The  Ancient  Mariner"  and  "To  a  Waterfowl"  to  "The 
Old  Sailor  "  and  "  To  a  Wild  Goose." 


1 86  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

It  is  good  taste  that  must  guide  one  in  the  selection  of  a 
word  with  the  right  suggestion,  and  good  taste  results  largely 
from  taking  notice  of  the  words  used  by  good  writers  and 
speakers.  The  greatest  danger  of  violating  good  taste  in  this 
matter  lies  in  the  inclination  of  some  writers  to  use  words 
that  are  too  formal  for  common  things.  This  you  may  see  in 
the  sentence  "  After  an  elegant  repast  had  been  served  by 
our  hostess  and  disposed  of,  we  dispersed  to  our  residences 
and  retired  to  our  slumbers,"  where  the  writer  means  simply 
"  After  we  had  enjoyed  the  supper  served  by  our  hostess,  we 
went  home  to  bed." 

Each  one  of  us  is  more  likely  to  use  too  few  different  words 
than  to  use  too  many ;  we  all  get  into  ruts  of  speech,  from 
which  only  he  who  cares  and  cares  constantly  will  get  out. 
To  increase  our  power  of  expression  we  must  increase  the 
number  of  our  servants,  and,  what  is  here  of  as  much  impor- 
tance, we  must  use  them  so  freely  that  they  are  constantly 
ready  for  our  commands. 

That  you  may  increase  your  store  of  words,  you  must  ac- 
quire an  interest  in  them.  When  you  find  in  your  reading 
a  passage  that  seems  particularly  effective,  stop  occasionally 
and  consider  exactly  what  every  unusual  or  significant  word 
means  and  why  the  author  used  precisely  that  word  in  that 
place.  Also,  you  must  learn  to  use  the  unabridged  dictionaiy. 
In  it  you  will  find  not  only  definitions  of  a  word,  but  its 
derivation  and  illustrations  of  its  uses.  These  illustrative  pas- 
sages should  give  not  only  the  applied  meaning  but  also  the 
peculiar  suggestion  of  the  word.  The  mastery  of  this,  the 
hardest  thing  in  diction  to  learn,  is  called  good  taste.  It 
results  from  much  reading  in  the  works  of  men  who  them- 
selves have  good  taste,  and  from  some  critical  observation 
as  suggested  in  these  paragraphs. 


VARIETY  187 

To  increase  your  vocabularies  of  expression,  however,  you 
must  do  more  than  observe  words  and  learn  their  definitions. 
You  must  use  the  new  or  unusual  word  at  every  opportunity, 
—  even  more,  you  must  make  opportunities  for  using  the 
word  and  then  use  it.  Drag  it  into  your  talk,  even  though  at 
first  this  causes  you  some  embarrassment.  Do  it  again  and 
again.  The  embarrassment  will  very  rapidly  disappear,  and, 
stranger  still,  the  word  will  begin  to  occur  in  your  speech 
almost  without  your  knowing  it.  This  possession  of  words 
will  not  result,  however,  unless  you  consciously  try  to  use  them 
repeatedly.  The  addition  of  only  one  new  word  a  day  or  even 
one  a  week  would  in  a  year  make  a  marked  difference  in  your 
vocabulary. 

Besides  speaking  the  new  words,  write  them.  You  need 
them  in  both  vocabularies.  Using  the  list  from  your  note-book, 
write  sentences  that  demand  the  various  words.  Do  this  over 
and  over,  partly  trying  to  express  ideas  of  your  own  that  are 
worth  while,  but  chiefly  seeking  a  mastery  over  new  tools. 
And  whenever  one  of  these  new  words  tries  to  slip  into  a 
sentence  that  you  are  making,  write  it  down,  even  though  you 
discard  it  in  the  revision.  New  words  are  timid  and  need 
encouragement.  Give  them  work,  and  they  will  develop  into 
ready  and  useful  helpers. 

If  you  are  studying  a  foreign  language,  use  the  opportuni- 
ties which  translation  affords  for  careful  discrimination  in 
words.  The  student  who  has  only  one  English  equivalent 
for  every  foreign  word  will  not  only  produce  wooden  and 
absurd  translations  but  will  gain  no  added  insight  into  his 
own  language.  Such  a  mechanical  student  was  the  boy  who 
translated  insano  ijicensus  amove  "  burned  by  a  crazy  love." 
On  the  other  hand,  a  student  who  has  gained  a  sense  or  feel- 
ing for  words  and  meaning  finds  that  a  word  in  the  foreign 


188  ilRSr   J500K  OF  COMPOSITION 

language  may  mean  any  one  of  a  great  variety  of  things, 
according  to  the  context.  The  discovery  of  this  fact  and  the 
struggle  to  fit  the  right  Enghsh  word  into  the  sentence 
illumine  both  the  foreign  and  the  native  vocabulary. 

A  few  illustrations  may  be  suggestive  to  pupils  studying 
Latin,  German,  or  French.  Some  of  the  commonest  words 
have  been  chosen.  Acer  may  mean  any  of  the  following : 
"sharp,"  "pointed,"  "piercing,"  "dazzling,"  "stinging," 
"pungent,"  "shrill,"  "acid,"  "severe,"  "violent,"  "gnaw- 
ing," "vehement,"  "passionate,"  "consuming,"  "subtle," 
"penetrating,"  "sagacious,"  "shrewd,"  "  keen,"  "  eager," 
"  active,"  "  ardent,"  "spirited,"  "  brave,"  "zealous,"  "  hasty," 
"enraged,"  "angry";  ann  may  be  translated  "poor," 
"  needy,"  "  scanty,"  "  barren,"  "  indigent  ";  beau  is  not  fully 
understood  unless  we  are  ready  to  translate  it  "beautiful," 
"fine,"  "lovely,"  "fair,"  "handsome,"  "smart,"  "spruce," 
"glorious,"  "lofty,"  "noble,"  "seemly,"  "becoming."  In 
learning  any  one  of  these  words,  get  the  underlymg  idea  — 
of  sharpness,  for  example  —  in  mind,  and  study  the  con- 
text for  the  shade  of  meaning  :  a  sharp  sound  would  be,  per- 
haps, shrill ;  a  sharp  blozv,  stinging.  Translation  involves  the 
seizing  of  another's  thought  and  the  expression  of  it  anew  in 
a  different  tongue,  not  a  mere  fitting  together  of  words  as  in 
a  picture  puzzle. 

EXERCISE  162  — Ora/ 
AVOIDING   REPETITION 

Sometimes  we  need  synonymous  expressions  not  so  much 
for  definiteness  as  for  variety.  In  improving  the  following  sen- 
tences use  freely  pronouns,  synonyms,  "the  former,"  and 

"  tlic  latter." 


VARIETY  189 

1.  After  I  had  read  the  book,  I  laid  the  book  on  the  table  in  the  hall. 
And  on  the  table  mother  found  the  book. 

2.  Birds  and  fish  both  interested  John  from  his  childhood.  Birds 
John  came  to  know  much  about,  but  fish  John  never  studied. 

3.  The  coach  suggested  to  the  captain  a  plan  for  confusing  the  op- 
ponents. But  the  captain  thought  the  plan  dishonorable.  The  captain 
would  not  use  such  a  plan. 

4.  Marie  thought  the  work  of  her  cousin  on  the  farm  hard.  Marie 
had  little  to  do  at  home,  while  her  cousin  had  work  for  all  the  spare 
hours. 

5.  While  the  girls  were  talking,  the  maid  came  up  to  say  that  the 
talking  annoyed  Mr.  Andrews.  After  talking  it  over,  the  girls  decided 
to  talk  no  more  that  night.  It  was  a  great  hardship,  however,  for  them 
not  to  talk  after  they  were  in  bed. 


EXERCISE  163  — Oral 

VARYING   WORN-OUT   WORDS 

Review  Exercise  6^,  page  70.  What  would  you  substitute 
for  the  following  expressions  in  italics  ?  Is  there  any  differ- 
ence in  meaning  or  in  suggestion  ?  If  so,  tell  when  you 
would  use  each, 

1.  I  don't  care  a  snap. 

2.  He  was  very  angry. 

3.  He  is  n't  worth  shucks. 

4.  We  had  2ijine  time. 

5.  This  is  a  beautiful  day. 

6.  He  is  a  7iice  boy. 

7.  She  is  a  lovely  girl. 

8.  The  hostess  served  a  dainty  luncheon. 

9.  We  had  a  hearty  dinner. 

10.  The  lesson  was  hard. 

11.  The  man's  scheme  ^yorked  lilce  a  charm. 

12.  The  concert  was  awful. 

13.  This  is  2,  fascinating  novel. 

14.  The  night  was  ideal. 


I90  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFITON 

EXERCISE  164  — Ora/ 
VARIETY   IN  SYNONYMS 

For  the  underscored  words  substitute  as  many  words  as  you 
can  that  mean  exactly  the  same  thing ;  as  many  that  mean 
nearly  the  same  thing.  Make  a  mental  image  for  each  sen- 
tence and  see  if  the  idea  changes  at  all  with  the  insertion 
of  a  new  word. 

1.  The  man  'we7it  down  the  street. 

2.  We  saw  the  ma?i  in  the  crowd. 

3.  At  the  party  the  girl  had  a  delightful  time. 

4.  The  boys  sat  about  on  the  piazza. 

5.  Finally  we  all  went  to  bed. 

6.  After  father  called  we  got  out  of  bed. 

7.  He  broke  out  into  shouts  of  laughter. 

8.  "  O  bother,"  I  replied  drowsily. 

9.  Liberty  was  the  dominant  note  in  all  the  speeches. 

10.  He  rode  by  on  his  horse. 

11.  I  could  n't  ^^^/  my  lesson. 

12.  Henry  did  his  chores. 

13.  Lena  has  a  pensive  look. 

14.  The  wagon  is  usually  on  time. 

15.  The  lecture  was  dull. 

16.  The  audience  were  attentive. 

17.  The  whistle  blew. 

18.  The  perfume  was  sweet. 

19.  Jim  lay  on  the  couch. 

20.  Dunstan  Cass  was  d^  prodigal. 

EXERCISE  165  — Ora/ 
SILVDES   OF   MEANING 

Arrange  in  order  all  the  steps  that  you  can  between  the 
following  extremes : 

1.  Blackest  midnight,  noonday's  glare. 

2.  Gentleman,  rough. 

3.  Sweet,  sour. 


A^ARIETY  191 

4.  Giant,  dwarf. 

5.  Freezing  cold,  sizzling  hot. 

6.  Intensely  interesting,  deadly  dull. 

7.  Miser,  spendthrift. 

8.  Lavish  generosity,  niggardly  penuriousness. 

9.  Soaking  wet,  dry. 

10.  Starved,  surfeited. 

11.  Smile,  guffaw. 

12.  Hideously  ugly,  ravishingly  beautiful. 

EXERCISE  166  —  Written 
USING  NEW   WORDS   APPROPRIATELY 

Make  sentences  using  the  following  words  appropriately. 
Do  not  be  content  with  "  He  had  faith,"  but  write  such  a  sen- 
tence as  will  show  that  you  really  have  some  mastery  of  the 
word;  for  instance,  "Even  though  the  mother  could  find 
no  trace  of  her  son,  she  had  faith  that  he  would  return." 
Consult  the  illustrative  sentences  in  an  unabridged  dictionary. 

1.  Magnanimous.  5.  Piteous.  9.  Vicious. 

2.  Equivalent.  6.  Decent.  10.  Repentant. 

3.  Reticent.  7.  Despicable.  11.  Candid, 

4.  Conscious.  8.  Affable.  12.  Trite. 

EXERCISE  16T  — Oral 
CHOOSING   FIT   WORDS 

Supply  in  the  blanks  words  that  not  only  make  sense  but 
also  are  in  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  the  passage.  Compare 
the  tone,  secured  largely  by  the  choice  of  words,  in  the  para- 
graphs quoted  on  pages  62,  72-74,  102,  and  1 16. 

We  had  awakened  early  that  winter  morning,  puzzled  at  first  by 

the light  that the  room.    Then,  when  at  last  the  truth 

fully on  us  and  we that  snow-balling  was  no  longer  a 

dream,  but  a certainty  waiting  for  us  outside,   it  was  a 


192  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

mere fight  for  the  necessary  clothes,  and  the  lacing  of  boots 

seemed  a .  and  the  buttoning  of  coats  a tedious  form 

of  fastening,  with  all  that  snow  going  to  waste  at  our  very  door. 

When  dinner-time we  had  to  be in  by  tlic of  our 

necks.    The  short over,  the  combat  was ;  but  presently 

Charlotte  and  I,  a  little of  contests  and  of that  ran 

down  inside  one's  clothes,  forsook  the battle-field  of  the  lawn 

and  went  exploring  the  blank spaces  of  the world  that 

lay  beyond.  —  Keweth  Gkahame 


EXERCISE  168  -  Written  and  Oral 
A   STUDY   IN   SYNONYMS 

Be  sure  that  you  grasp  the  meaning  o"f  each  sentence  and 
word  as  it  stands  in  the  following  paragraph.  Then  sub- 
stitute synonymous  words  or  phrases  for  those  in  italics,  and 
discuss  in  class  the  changes  in  suggestion  or  meaning. 

Among  sayings  that  have  a  curreiiLy  in  spite  of  being  wholly 
false  upon  the  face  of  them  for  the  sake  of  a  half-truth  upon  another 
subject  which  is  accidentally  coinbined  with  the  error,  one  of  the 
grossest  and  broadest  conveys  the  monstrous  proposition  that  it  is 
easy  to  tell  the  trii/h  and  hard  to  tell  a  lie.  I  wish  heartily  it  w-ere. 
But  the  truth  is  one ;  it  has  first  to  be  discovered,  then  Justly  and 
exactly  uttered.  Even  with  instrunie/its  specially  contrived  for 
such  a  purpose  —  with  a  foot  rule,  a  level,  or  a  theodolite  —  it  is 
not  easy  to  be  exact ;  it  is  easier,  alas!  to  be  inexact.  From  those 
who  mark  the  divisions  on  a  scale  to  those  who  measure  the 
boundaries  of  empires  or  the  distance  of  the  heavenly  stars,  it  is 
by  careful  method  Txnd.  minute.,  unwearying  attention  that  men  rise 
even  to  material  exactness  or  to  sure  knowledge  even  of  external 
and  constant  things.  But  it  is  easier  to  draw  the  outline  of  a  moun- 
tain than  the  changing  appearance  of  a  face ;  and  truth  in  human 
relations  is  of  this  more  intangible  and  dubious  order :  hard  to  seize, 
harder  to  communicate.  Veracity  to  facts  in  a  loose,  colloquial 
sense  —  not  to  say  that  I  have  been  in  Malabar  when  as  a  matter 
of  fact  I  was  never  out  of  England,  not  to  say  that  I  have  read 


VARIETY  193 

Cervantes  in  the  original  when  as  a  7)tatter  of  fact  I  know  not  one 
syllable  of  Spanish  —  this,  indeed,  is  easy  and  to  the  same  degree 
■unimportant  in  itself.  Lies  of  this  sort,  according  to  ctrcu?nsta?ices, 
may  or  may  not  be  important ;  in  a  certain  sense  even  they  may  or 
may  not  ho.  false.  The  habitual  liar  may  be  a  very  honest  fellow,  and 
live  truly  with  his  wife  and  friends ;  while  another  man  who  never 
told  ^formal  falsehood  in  his  life  may  yet  be  himself  one  lie  — 
heart  and  face,  from  top  to  bottom.  This  is  the  kind  of  lie  which 
poisons  intimacy.  And  t'/Vt'  7'ersa,  veracity  to  sentiment.,  truth  in 
a  relation,  truth  to  your  own  heart  and  your  friends,  never  io  feign 
or  falsify  emotion  —  that  is  the  truth  which  makes  love  possible 
and  mankind  happy. 

Stevenson,  "  The  Truth  of  Intercourse  " 


EXERCISE  \^^  — Written 
USING   WORDS   EFFECTIVELY 

From  the  theme  topics  suggested  on  page  237  f.  select  one 
and  develop  it  in  one  or  two  paragraphs.  From  all  possible 
synonyms  that  occur  to  you  for  any  particular  idea,  choose 
each  time  the  one  most  sure  to  stimulate  the  sense  image 
of  your  readers. 

B.    VARIETY   THROUGH    DIRECT   AND    INDIRECT 
DISCOURSE 

Another  means  of  securing  variety  is  the  use  of  direct  and  in- 
direct discourse.  Direct  discourse,  which  gives  the  exact  words 
of  a  speaker,  usually  makes  the  statement  more  vivid  and  adds 
importance  to  it.  Indirect  discourse,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
gives  the  thought  of  the  speaker  in  a  slightly  modified  expres- 
sion, is  used  when  the  emphasis  is  on  some  other  part  of  the 
sentence  or  when  rapidity  in  the  passage  is  desirable.  For 
example,  in  "writing  up"  a  speech,  a  reporter  may  wish  to 


194 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFriOX 


give  his   readers  a   general  idea  and   then  to  emphasize  a 
particular  passage.    He  might  write  : 

After  apologizing  for  his  late  arrival,  the  speaker  declared  that 
he  was  glad  to  greet  his  old  friends.  He  denied  that  he  nad  voted 
for  any  bill  that  was  against  the  interests  of  the  county.  Continu- 
ing, he  said:  "  In  regard  to  the  Lawrence  Bill,  I  am  still  opposed 
to  it.    My  reasons  are  ,  .  ," 

The  direct  statement  is  in  the  form  of  a  noun  clause  used 
as  the  object  of  some  verb  or  verbal  of  saying,  thinking,  ask- 
ing, and  the  like.  If  this  leading  verb  is  present  or  future, 
the  verb  forms  in  the  clause  are  unchanged  in  tense  ;  if  it  is 
past,  the  verb  forms  in  the  indirect  discourse  must  be  past. 
For  instance,  the  direct  statement,  "  If  there  be  any  truth  in 
the  old  man's  prophecy,  I  see  and  you  soon  zvill  see  the  end 
of  the  matter  "  becomes  "  He  declares  (will  declare)  that  if 
there  be  any  truth  in  the  old  man's  prophecy,  he  sees  and  you 
soon  ivill  see  the  end  of  the  matter,"  or  "He  declared  (has 
declared)  that  if  there  were  any  truth  in  the  old  man's  prophecy, 
he  saiv  and  you  soon  ^voidd  see  the  end  of  the  matter." 

EXERCISE  170  — Ora/ 

CHANGING    DIKKCT   TO   INDIRECT   DLSCOURSE 

Change  the  following  examples  of  direct  discourse  to 
indirect  discourse  : 

1.  "I  am  free,"  he  shouted. 

2.  He  says  in  the  interview,  "  I  am  not  able  to  pay  my  debts.'' 

3.  He  told  me,  "  You  should  study  engineering." 

4.  "  I  want  a  live  dragon,"  he  announced. 

5.  "  Oh,  but  rabbits  do  talk,"  declared  Harold.  "  They  put  their 
heads  together  and  their  noses  go  up  and  down  just  like  Salina's  and 
the  Vicarage  girls'." 

6.  "  You  have  n't  been  to  Rome,  have  you  'i  "  I  inquired. 


VARIETY  195 

7.  He  stated  to  the  officer,  "  I  am  a  pupil  in  the  Lawrence  School." 

8.  He  swears  in  his  affidavit,  "  I  am  of  legal  age  and  of  sound  mind." 

9.  "  This,"  we  shall  exclaim,  "  is  what  you  have  led  us  to  !  " 

10.  "  The  field  belongs  to  Farmer  Larkin,"  I  explained  politely, 
"  who  lives  just  below  us." 

11.  "  There  are  some  things,"  he  had  read  somewhere,  "  that  no  one 
can  understand." 

12.  By  that  time  he  will  have  demanded,  "  Who  are  you,  anyway?  " 

EXERCISE  n I  — Oral 
CHANGING   INDIRECT   TO    DIRECT   DISCOURSE 

Change  the  following  indirect  statements  to  direct.  Secure 
variety  by  placing  the  leading  verb  (i)  before  the  quotation, 
(2)  after  it,  and  (3)  at  some  suitable  point  in  the  quotation. 

1.  He  rapped  out  that  I  was  a  young  ignoramus  and  that  I  could  not 
read  even  English. 

2.  He  asked  solicitously  if  I  was  running  away. 

3.  Mother  was  getting  ready  to  demand  in  her  characteristic  way 
who  was  going. 

4.  He  inquired  what  we  had  been  playing. 

5.  Every  morning  the  teacher  wants  to  know  what  we  have  done 
over  night. 

6.  She  persists  that  she  can  make  a  cake  as  well  as  her  mother. 


In  direct  discourse  various  effects  are  secured  by  the  use  of 
different  leading  verbs,  as  may  have  been  noticed  in  the  pre- 
ceding exercises.  These  leading  verbs  with  the  accompanying 
explanations  of  action  and  the  like  are  called  the  "'  author's 
comment."  Passages  from  several  different  novelists  should 
be  examined  with  a  view  to  seeing  how  much  variety  and  defi- 
niteness  they  secure  through  a  selection  of  different  leading 
verbs  and  how  much  through  effective  placing  of  the  author's 
comment. 


196  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  172  -  Written 
VARYING    THE    INTRODUCTORY   WORDS   OF   QUOTATIONS 

a.  Make  as  long  a  list  of  synonyms  as  you  can  for  Ac  said ; 
he  asked. 

b.  Add  explanator)'  comment  to  each  and  then  write, appro- 
priate direct  discourse.  For  instance,  starting  with  the  verb 
gasp,  we  might  add  faniiing  herself  %ngorotisly,  and  finally 
write  :  "  Well,"  she  gasped,  fanning  herself  vigorously,  "  I 
never  felt  such  a  hot  day  before  since  I  was  born," 

EXERCISE  \1Z  — Written 
WRITING   CONVERSATION   WITH   VARIED   COMMENTS 

Write  one  of  the  conversations  indicated  below.  Make  the 
author's  comment  varied  and  suggestive, 

1.  An  angry  farmer  and  a  boy  caught  in  the  melon  patch. 

2.  An  asthmatic  beggar  and  a  sensible  charity  worker. 

3.  A  benevolent  gentleman  and  a  newsboy  who  has  just  returned  his 
hat  from  the  mud  of  a  crowded  street. 

4.  The  captain  of  the  ball  team  planning  with  one  of  his  men  for 
a  game. 

5.  Two  girls  exchanging  confidences. 

6.  A  clerk  in  a  dry  goods  store  and  a  very  exacting  customer,  or  a 
woman  who  does  n't  know  her  mind,  or  a  woman  who  is  easily  offended. 

7.  Mrs.  Putonairs  and  her  new  cook,  just  from  the  country. 

8.  A  woman  and  a  book-agent  at  the  door. 

9.  John  and  his  little  sister  at  the  circus. 

EXERCISE  174  -  Oral  or  Written 
VARYING   DIRECT   AND   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE 

Prepare  to  tell  in  class  one  of  the  following  incidents. 
Secure  vividness  or  emphasis  by  direct  quotation,  rapidity 
or  subordination  by  indirect. 


VARIETY  197 

1.  Albert,  already  late,  is  stopped  on  his  way  to  school  by  an  immi- 
grant woman  who  speaks  little  English.  After  finding  out  her  wants,  he 
gives  her  the  help  she  needs. 

2.  A  stuttering  boy  inquires  his  way  of  an  impatient  and  unsympa- 
thetic man.    A  kindly  stranger  sets  all  to  rights. 

3.  A  forgetful  boy  is  sent  to  the  store  for  some  pepper. 

EXERCISE  175  —  Written 
VARYING   A   CHARACTER    SKETCH   WITH    CONVERSATION 

Write  a  character  sketch  of  an  old  man  or  an  old  woman, 
taking  your  portrait  as  he  or  she  is  chatting  with  you.  Reveal 
as  much  of  his  or  her  personality  and  life  as  you  can.  Intro- 
duce characteristic  remarks  in  direct  quotations.  Look  well 
to  your  choice  of  words. 

C.    VARIETY   IN    SENTENCES  ^ 

The  form  of  sentences  is  not  to  be  varied  merely  for  the 
sake  of  variety  ;  it  should  be  determined  always  by  the  thought 
to  be  expressed.  It  will  be  so  determined  if  the  writer  has  such 
an  acquaintance  with  the  different  sentence  forms  that  he  can 
at  need  call  up  any  one  for  use.  One  duty,  then,  of  the  young 
writer  is  to  learn  what  these  forms  are  and  to  practice  chang- 
ing the  expression  of  a  thought  from  one  to  the  others  until 
they  are  familiar  to  him  and  easy  to  use. 

I.    Declarative,  Interrogative,  and  Imperative  Sentences 

In  gram^mar  you  have  learned  the  three  sentence  forms  — 
declarative,  interrogative,  and  imperative  —  whereby  we  may 
make  a  statement,  ask  a  question,  or  utter  a  command  or 

1  In  all  of  the  work  on  sentence  forms  and  modifiers  it  would  be  well  to  examine 
for  variety  the  passages  quoted  in  the  earlier  chapters. 


198  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFriOX 

entreaty.  The  first  is  the  usual  form  of  our  sentences,  because 
we  are  ordinarily  tr)ing  merely  to  tell  our  thoughts. 

The  second  form  has  two  uses,  one  of  which  is  common 
to  all  who  wish  to  find  out  something.  Its  other  use  is  inter- 
rogative in  form  but  declarative  in  meaning.  This  is  called 
the  rhetorical  question.  We  use  it  in  an  idiomatic  sense  when 
we  call  out,  "'  What  do  you  take  me  for  ?  "  Shylock  uses  it 
when  he  says  :  "He  hath  disgraced  me.  And  what 's  his 
reason  ?  I  am  a  Jew.  Hath  not  a  Jew  eyes  ?  Hath  not  a 
Jew  hands,  organs,  dimensions,  senses,  affections,  passions  ?  " 
Neither  we  nor  Shylock  are  seeking  information  ;  but  we 
use  the  interrogative  form  to  tell  our  thoughts  because,  tend- 
ing to  surprise  the  hearer  and  make  him  think  for  himself, 
it  gives  variety  and  strength  to  the  expression. 

The  imperative  form  of  sentence  we  use  when  we  wish 
to  beg  for  something  or  to  utter  a  command.  In  your  ex- 
perience, so  far,  imperative  sentences  have  largely  been 
short :  "  Stop  !  "  "  Let  me  alone  !  "  "  Come  here  !  "  As  we 
try  to  express  in  our  writing  a  great  variety  of  thoughts,  the 
imperative  form  will  perhaps  find  a  more  frequent  use.  Some- 
times this,  too,  is  used  for  a  forcible  statement.  Instead  of 
declaring,  "  I  prefer  death  to  slavery,"  Patrick  Henry  used 
the  imperative  form  and  shouted,  '"  Give  me  liberty  or  give 
me  death  !  " 

First  we  shall  practice  merely  varying  the  expression  of 
the  same  thought  in  these  three  forms,  so  that  we  may  have 
some  mastery  over  them.  Then  in  our  future  writing  they 
may  of  their  own  accord,  as  it  were,  slip  into  a  fitting  place. 
More  probably,  however,  we  shall  introduce  the  interrogative 
and  imperative  forms  in  revision.  Looking  over  what  we 
have  written,  we  feel  the  need  of  more  strength  ;  perhaps 
we  can  gain  it  by  substituting  a  rhetorical  question  or  an 


VARIETY  199 

imperative  form.  Use  these  freely  in  writing.  Your  natural 
good  taste  will,  in  all  probability,  prevent  your  overdoing  the 
matter ;  that  failing,  your  teacher  will  point  out  the  excess. 

EXERCISE  176  —  Oral 
MAKING    INTERROGATIVE    AND    IMPERATIVE    SENTENCES 

Change  the  forms  of  the  following  expressions  to  inter- 
rogative or  imperative.  Consider  in  each  case  the  change 
of  impression. 

1.  The  judge  of  all  the  world  should  do  right. 

2.  You  had  better  stop  and  look  and  listen  at  the  crossing. 

3.  I  am  no  simpleton  for  you  to  fool  like  that. 

4.  I  think  America  is  the  best  place  for  me. 

5.  I  am  so  excited  that  I  don't  know  what  to  do. 

6.  I  hope  every  dear  friend  will  throw  himself  into  the  breach  and 
stop  the  attack. 

7.  You  members  of  the  football  team  must  hold  your  opponents. 

8.  Alas !    I  hardly  know  what  I  have  done. 

II.    Active  and  Passive  Voice 

In  English  we  have  another  means  of  variety  —  the  power 
of  expressing  the  same  thought  in  the  active  or  in  the  passive 
voice.  When  a  predicate  is  in  the  active  voice,  it  usually  ex- 
presses an  action  performed  by  the  subject ;  when  in  the  pas- 
sive, it  usually  expresses  an  action  affecting  the  subject.  Thus 
we  may  say,  "The  boys  broke  the  window  last  night,"  or 
"  Last  night  the  window  was  broken  by  the  boys," 

Use  the  active  voice  unless  there  is  some  good  reason  for 
using  the  passive.  We  use  the  passive  (i)  when  we  wish  to 
avoid  a  change  of  subject,  (2)  when  we  wish  to  emphasize 
the  person  or  thing  affected  by  the  act,  or  (3)  when  we  do 
not  know  or  do  not  wish  to  name  the  actor. 


200  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  m-Oral 
USING  THE   PASSIVE  CORRECTLY 

In  the  following  sentences  criticize  the  use  of  the  passive. 
If  good,  justify  it ;  if  bad,  revise  the  sentence. 

1.  A  pleasant  time  was  had  at  the  party. 

2.  The  first  reflecting  telescope  was  made  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

3.  The  equable  temperature  of  the  tropics  minimizes  man's  needs 
and  leads  to  uniformity;  but  the  necessaries  of  life  are  multiplied  in 
the  temperate  realm  and  variety  is  secured. 

4.  Last  night  the  flowers  were  covered  with  dew. 

5.  Hydrogen  is  made  by  pouring  hydrochloric  acid  over  zinc  filings. 

6.  We  are  all  hero  worshipers.  America  was  discovered  by  Colum- 
bus, and  we  enshrine  him  among  our  heroes. 

7.  Electricity  is  used  to-day  to  lighten  work  in  almost  every  field. 
The  tons  of  metal,  for  instance,  which  compose  the  moving  parts  of  a 
great  telescope  are  moved  in  any  direction  by  it. 

8.  A  good  watch  must  be  treated  well  if  it  is  expected  to  keep 
good  time. 

9.  Peter  was  the  favorite  son,  and  on  his  sixteenth  birthday  he  was 
given  a  horse  by  his  mother. 

10.  Needless  to  say,  the  lesson  was  mastered  before  I  left  school. 

11.  After  the  address  had  been  delivered,  Lincoln  sat  down,  fearing 
that  it  was  not  liked  by  the  people. 

12.  When  the  pigs  had  been  fed,  Jack  still  had  a  half-dozen  chores 
to  do. 

13.  A  delightful  evening  was  passed  at  the  home  of  Mrs.  Smith  by 
her  Sunday  School  class  and  a  few  friends. 

14.  Your  request  has  been  listened  to  by  me  with  great  interest. 

15.  He  was  awarded  a  prize  by  the  committee  for  his  garden. 

III.  Ordkr  of  Skntexce  Elements 

As  you  have  learned  in  grammar,  there  is  as  a  base  in 
every  simple  sentence  one  proposition,  consisting  of  a  sub- 
ject, which  represents  that  about  which  we  are  making  an 


A'ARIETY  20 1 

assertion  ;  a  predicate  attribute  (variously  called  subjective 
complement,  predicate  adjective  or  noun,  and  predicate),  which 
represents  what  we  are  asserting  of  the  subject  of  thought ; 
and  the  copula  (verb),  which  asserts  the  relation  of  the  pred- 
icate attribute  to  the  subject ;  as,  "  Boys  are  restless."  Fre- 
quently the  copula  and  predicate  attribute  are  combined,  as, 
"'  Boys  run."  In  many  sentences  there  is  also,  as  a  part  of 
the  base,  a  direct  object,  as,  "  Cows  eat  grass  "  ;  and,  occa- 
sionally, there  is  an  objective  complement  (variously  called 
factitive  adjective,  noun,  or  object ;  predicate  attribute  of  the 
object,  etc.),  as,  "John  cuts  the  grass  sJiorty 

Any  or  all  of  these  elements  may  be  modified  ('"  The 
young  men  are  now  cutting  the  long  grass  very  short.")  and 
any  or  all  may  be  compounded  ("  Even  the  youngest  boys  and 
the  oldest  men  were  yesterday  and  are  still  to-day  making  the 
weak  levee  much  wider  and  stronger."),  and  yet  we  still  have 
a  simple  sentence. 

If  another  complete  proposition  is  added,  however,  we 
have  a  compound  sentence  ;  as,  "  After  being  shut  up  for 
some  time  boys  are  very  restless,  but  at  the  end  of  a  day  of 
hard  work  they  are  ready  for  bed  by  nightfall." 

If  any  modifier  consists  of  a  subject  and  predicate,  —  in 
other  words,  is  a  clause,  —  we  have  a  complex  sentence  ;  as, 
"  Boys  who  have  been  shut  in  for  some  time  are  restless  if 
they  do  not  have  plenty  of  exercise."  Moreover,  propositions 
in  compound  sentences  are  frequently  complex  ;  as,  ""  He  who 
is  wise  prepares ;  but  he  who  is  foolish  repents." 

In  English  the  order  of  the  elements  in  a  simple  sen- 
tence is  pretty  well  fixed,  for  it  is  by  order  rather  than  by  the 
form  of  the  words  that  we  tell  their  uses.  We  sa)^  "  Boys 
are  restless,"  and  in  this  particular  sentence  no  other  order 
will  give  us  the  same  meaning.    In  some  cases,  however,  we- 


202  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

may  secure  variety  and  great  vigor  by  the  unusual  order  of 
predicate  attribute,  copula,  and  subject ;  for  instance,  "  Won- 
derful are  the  works  of  God."  And  in  still  other  cases  it  is  pos- 
sible to  begin  the  sentence  with  the  word  there,  which  has  no 
other  effect  than  that  it  permits  us  to  change  the  form  of  the 
sentence.  Hence  it  is  usually  called  2i  form  word.  "  Ice  is 
in  the  river"  and  "There  is  ice  in  the  river"  mean  prac- 
tically the  same  thing.  When  a  direct  object  is  contained 
in  the  sentence,  it  usually  comes  after  the  predicate  verb  ;  but 
in  rare  cases  it  may  stand  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence. 
"  He  made  mistakes  of  course,  but  he  was  honest"  may  be 
written  "  Mistakes  he  made,  of  course,  but  he  was  honest." 

EXERCISE  178 -Ora/ 
VARYING   THE  ORDER   OE   SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE 

Which  of  the  following  sentences  may  be  changed  to  any 
other  of  the  forms  given  .''  Consider  the  difference  in  mean- 
ing or  in  effect,  if  there  be  any.  Note  the  value  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  forms  in  securing  variety. 

1.  Before  him  the  spectral  figure  of  his  partner  stood. 

2.  Many  things  are  in  this  world  that  we  do  not  dream  of. 

3.  We  had  fine  luck.     We  killed  ten  rabbits  and  six   bobwhites 
during  the  morning. 

4.  There  is  in  the  world  a  vast  number  of  honest  men. 

5.  A  wonderful  help  to  man  is  this  discovery. 

6.  Her  eyes  are  blue. 

7.  By  the  door  stood  a  tall  poplar. 

8.  The  place  was  wonderful.    Lollipops  grew  on  trees  and  sugar 
plums  were  everywhere. 

9.  A  neat,  pretty  cottage  it  was,  with  clipped  yew  hedges  all  around 
the  garden. 

10.  And  there  sat  by  the  empty  fireplace,  which  was  filled  with  a  pot 
'of  sweet  herbs,  the  nicest  old  woman  that  ever  was  seen. 


VARIETY  203 

IV.  Different  Forms  of  Modifiers 

In  addition  to  the  basal  elements  of  the  sentence,  there 
are  many  modifiers,  —  elements  added  to  the  bare  sentence 
to  make  the  meaning  more  complete  and  exact. 

a.  Adjective  modifiers.  The  subject  of  a  sentence,  if  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  may  be  modified  by  one  or  more  (i)  ad- 
jectives, (2)  adjective  phrases,  (3)  adjective  clauses,  (4)  apposi- 
tives,  (5)  participles  or  participial  phrases,  or  by  combinations 
of  these  elements.  Any  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  sentence 
may  be  similarly  modified.  These  types  of  adjective  adjuncts, 
or  modifiers,  may  all  be  illustrated  in  one  sentence  :  "  The 
old  (i)  man  on  the  poixh  (2)  reading  his  paper  (5)  is  the 
father  of  Isaac  Matthews,  sJienjf  of  the  county  (4),  zvho  last 
year  protected  his  prisoner  from  the  mob  (3)." 

If  a  person  used  only  one  of  these  kinds  of  modifiers,  his 
writing  or  talk  would  not  only  fail  to  express  exactly  what  he 
meant,  but  also  would  seem  so  unvaried  as  to  become  tire- 
some. Consequently  one  who  wishes  to  secure  variety  and  in- 
terest should  have  all  these  forms  at  his  tongue's  end.  Nearly 
every  adjective  adjunct  can  be  expressed  in  more  than  one 
form,  and  occasionally  an  adjunct  will  lend  itself  to  all  of  the 
forms  ;  as  :  (i)  The  crasy  man  ;  (2)  The  man  ivith  a  crazed 
brain;  (3)  The  man  zvho  is  crazy ;  (4)  The  man,  a  lunatic,  or 
The  man,  crazed  by  drink ;  and  (5)  The  man  being  crazy,  etc. 

EXERCISE  179 -Ora/ 
VARYING   ADJECTIVE   ADJUNCTS 

Vary  the  adjective  adjuncts  in  the  following  sentences  in 
as  many  ways  as  possible  : 

1.  These  barbarous  people  lived  long  ago. 

2.  The  hunters  soon  killed  an  old  moose. 


204  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

3.  At  the  end  of  the  first  day  Mary  was  a  tired  girl. 

4.  In  a  dreadfully  big  and  lonely  room  sat  the  prince. 

5.  That  terrible  night  finally  came  to  an  end. 

6.  The  cunning  monster  killed  several  of  the  deer. 

7.  He  was  attacked  by  a  drove  of  these  little  wild  hogs. 

8.  A  few  shiftless  men  watched  the  performance. 

9.  General  Wood,  the  commander^  was  until  1 898  a  physician. 

10.  Having  killed  the  rabbit,  Nelson  began  to  look  about  for  other 
game. 

11.  The  new  teacher,  iliJio  was  Canadian  by  birth,  was  an  interesting 
man. 

12.  The  man  coining  oi<er  the  hill  is  the  doctor. 

13.  Buck,  being  released fivni  the  box,  sprang  at  the  man  in  the  red 
sweater. 

14.  A  man  who  Jiglits  and  runs  away  may  live  to  fight  another  day. 

15.  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

16.  Men  of  honor  do  not  sell  their  honor. 

17.  American  men,  will  you  see  your  land  invaded.? 

18.  A  bird  that  is  in  the  hand  \s  worth  two  that  are  in  the  bush. 


b.  Adverb  modifiers.  The  modifier  of  any  part  of  the  sen- 
tence except  the  nouns  and  pronouns  is  called  adverbial.  Ad- 
verbial modifiers  are  in  form:  (i)  an  adverb,  (2)  an  adverb 
phrase,  this  including  the  infinitive,  (3)  an  adverb  clause,  and, 
in  effect,  {4)  an  absolute  phrase.  This  last  is  not  grammati- 
cally joined  to  any  part  of  the  sentence,  but  in  effect  it  is 
usually  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  predicate.  These  modifiers 
may  be  illustrated  as  follows:  (i)  He  walked  hesitatingly ; 
(2)  He  walked  zvith  hesitating  steps  ;  (3)  He  walked  as  if  he 
hesitated;  and  (4)  His  feel  hesitating  at  eveiy  step,  the  man 
walked  down  the  street. 

With  adverbial  modifiers  as  with  adjectival,  one  should 
have  command  of  the  several  forms  in  order  that  he  may  se- 
cure variety  and  also  that  he  may  express  himself  exactly. 
In  actual  composition  sometimes  one  form  will  be  the  best, 


VARIETY  205 

sometimes  another.  These  exercises  are  framed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  all  the  forms  familiar.  When  writing,  use 
for  the  most  part  the  form  that  comes  to  you  naturally ;  in 
revision  search  carefully  for  the  best  form. 

EXERCISE  ISO -Oral 
VARYING  ADVERB  ADJUNCTS 

Vary  the  following  adverb  adjuncts  in  as  many  ways  as 
possible  : 

1.  Macaulay  read  nipidly. 

2.  He  also  read  accurately. 

3.  The  umpire  made  his  decisions  impartially. 

4.  The  game  having  been  finished  early,  the  boys  had  time  to  rest 
before  eating. 

5.  Don't  hurry  on  f/iy  account. 

6.  That  the  players  m.ight  understand  clearly,  the  umpire  explained 
the  new  rules. 

7.  We  were  eager  to  begin. 

8.  Because  he  had  been  frightened  as  a  colt,  Boniface  was  never 
safe  for  women  to  drive. 

9.  He  would  come  at  night  every  day  for  his  food  and  petting. 

10.  The  lecturer  having  denounced  the  book,  we  were  all  eager  to 
read  it. 

11.  You  will  find  him  at  home. 

12.  Come  to  see  us  oftoi. 

EXERCISE  181  — OraZ 

SYNONYMOUS   ADVERB   ADJUNCTS 

What  variations  in  form  may  the  following  adverb  adjuncts 
have  1  Compose  sentences  beginning  with  these  modifiers 
and  also  with  their  variants :  doubtless,  necessarily,  ee?'- 
tainly,  surely,  at  all  events,  obvioiisly,  likely,  possibly^ 
indeed,  anyzvay. 


2o6  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFFION 

Make  a  list  of  similar  words  and  use  them  in  like  manner. 

Adverbial  ideas,  especially  of  time  and  cause,  are  frequently 
given  (I)  by  participial  phrases,  adjectival  in  form,  and  (2)  by 
absolute  phrases.  For  example,  the  causal  idea  in  the  follow- 
ing adverb  clause,  "  As  the  horse  was  tired,"  may  be  expressed 
by  a  participial  phrase,  "  Being  tired,  the  horse  stopped  to 
rest,"  or  by  an  absolute  phrase,  "  The  horse  being  tired,  we 
stopped  for  an  hour  by  the  roadside." 

EXERCISE  182 -Ora/ 
VARIOUS    EQUIVALENTS    FOR   ADVERB   ADJUNCTS 

Express  the  ideas  in  the  adverb  clauses  by  participial 
phrases,  either  adjective  or  absolute. 

1.  When  the  clock  had  struck,  the  men  quit  work. 

2.  As  the  boys  had  eaten  their  lunches  hurriedly,  they  did  not  notice 
the  queer  taste. 

3.  We  threw  the  fish  back  into  the  water  because  they  were  too 
small  to  dress. 

4.  Ted  fell  exhausted  when  he  had  crossed  the  line. 

5.  As  Mary  had  never  before  spoken  in  public,  she  was  reluctant  to 
appear. 

6.  When  the  last  girl  had  arrived,  I  served  tea  in  the  sitting  room. 

7.  Because  we  had  planned  to  keep  the  whole  thing  a  secret,  we  did 
not  wear  the  pins  to  school. 

8.  As  the  rule  had  been  broken,  the  principal  suspended  each  boy  for 
two  weeks. 

9.  After  I  had  read  the  book  I  felt  as  though  I  could  run  an  auto- 
mobile myself. 

The  ideas  most  commonly  expressed  by  adverb  adjuncts 
of  the  predicate  are  (i)  place,  (2)  time,  (3)  manner,  (4)  cause, 
C5),  purpose,  (6)  condition,  {7)  concession. 

1.  He  died  there,  in  his  bed,  where  he  fell. 

2.  He  died  yesterday,  in  the  fall,  when  he  was  old. 


VARIETY  207 

3.  He  died  peacefully,  in  peace,  as  a  saint  should  die. 

4.  He  died  of  pneumonia,  because  he  had  pneumonia. 

5.  He  died  to  save  his  friend,  that  he  might  save  his  friend. 

6.  He  will  die  if  that  is  poison  that  he  drank. 

7.  He  died,  although  the  doctors  made  valiant  efforts  to  save  him. 

Tiy  placing  each  of  the  above  adjuncts  first  in  its  sentence. 


EXERCISE  183  — Oral 

VARIOUS   EQUIVALENTS   FOR   ADVERB   ADJUNCTS   OF 
VARIED   MEANINGS 

Add  to  each  of  the  following  statements  adverb  adjuncts 
in  various  forms  expressing  if  possible  all  the  ideas  mentioned 
above.   Which  form  of  the  adjunct  seems  best  in  each  case  ? 

1.  The  soldier  grew  worse. 

2.  The  one  who  first  finishes  the  paragraph  should  raise  his  hand. 

3.  The  picnic  must  be  postponed. 

4.  The  work  will  be  done. 

5.  Walter  Scott  was  not  a  brilliant  pupil. 

6.  Lincoln  spoke. 

7.  The  Hill  School  won. 

8.  Mother  was  tired. 

9.  It  had  been  a  happy  day. 

V.  Position  of  Modifiers 

As  a  rule,  modifiers  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  element  to  be  modified.  Sometimes  when  this  is  not 
done,  ambiguity  or  absurdity  results.  This  is  certainly  the 
case  in  "  When  trotting,  we  notice  that  now  and  then  a  horse 
has  all  his  feet  off  the  ground."  Not  infrequently  the  change 
of  position  of  a  modifier  without  cjuestion  changes  the  mean- 
ing of  a  sentence.  What,  for  instance,  does  the  next  sentence 
mean  with  o;i/j/  inserted  at  each  point  indicated  by  a  caret  ? 


2o8  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFflON 

"^The  old  miser^lent^the  Methodists^ fifty  dollars  for^six 
months^."  But  when  no  ambiguity  is  possible,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing illustrations,  we  should  use  in  different  sentences  a 
variety  of  positions  for  modifiers  in  order  to  avoid  monotony 
of  sentence  form.  The  following,  which  mean  the  same  thing, 
may  be  used  interchangeably,  —  each  form  being  best,  per- 
haps, in  certain  connections:  "Washington  lived  here  for 
many  years  "  ;  "  Here  for  many  years  Washington  lived  "  ; 
"  Here  Washington  lived  for  many  years"  ;  "  For  many  years 
Washington  lived  here." 

EXERCISE  184  — Oro/ 
VARYING   THE   POSITION   OF   ADVKRB   ADJUNCTS 

What  changes  in  meaning  result  from  the  insertion  of  the 
modifier  at  each  caret  ? 

1.  /us/.  ^Afterward  Arthur  learned^enough  to  understand  the  sailors' 
stories. 

2.  Sometimes.  ^Gulliver,^fearing  that  he^would  be  crushcd^by  the 
terrible  people  around  him,^tried^to  hide  himself. 

3.  Often.   ^While  driving  along  the  country  roads  Arthur^resolved 
that  he  would^see  the  theatre^  when  he  visited  the  city^. 

4.  Probably.    The  stories,  though^false.^stirred  him  so  that  he^would 
^have^caused  trouble^had  he  not  been  restrained. 

5.  Surely.  ^Goodness  and  mercy ^shall^follow  me^all  the  days  of  my 


EXERCISE  185 -Ora/ 

CHOOSING  THE   BEST   POSITION   FOR  AN  ADVERB 
ADJUNCT 

What  is  the  best  position  for  the  detached  adjuncts  in  the 
following  sentences  }  Test  the  arrangements  by  reading  them 
aloud  and  comparing  their  meanings. 


VARIETY  209 

1.  hi  a  moinenf.    The  dog  was  at  the  tramp's  throat. 

2.  Frequently.   Rip  Van  Winkle  would  take  his  gun  and  go  off  into 
the  woods,  where  he  would  enjoy  a  day  of  hunting. 

3.  Finally.    The  boys  were  rewarded  by  seeing  a  dim  white  figure 
rise  from  behind  a  pile  of  stones. 

4.  On  the  steps.    John  and  Ray  sat  crying  for  their  mother. 

5.  Lazily.    The  clerk  took  the  box  from  the  shelf. 

6.  For  Slipper.    We  had  fresh  fish  and  hardtack. 

7.  For  these  reasons.   The  boys  decided  to  stay  in  camp  another  day. 

8.  At  tills  point.   Towser,  who  had  been  barking  out  in  the  woods, 
came  tearing  into  camp  like  mad. 

9.  With  a  sigh.    Madge  laid  aside  the  magazine  and  got  her  books. 
10.  In   spite  of  protests.     The   committee   decided   that   the   boys 

should  secure  vehicles  and  that  the  girls  should  provide  the  lunch. 

VI.    Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences 

In  developing  the  preceding  exercises  you  have  doubtless 
been  struck  by  the  effect  produced  by  placing  the  modifiers 
at  or  near  the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  This  arrangement 
suspends  the  meaning  until  all  the  details  are  taken  care  of, 
and  makes  the  sentence  end  with  snap  and  vigor  ;  for  exam- 
ple, '•'  There  on  the  bridge,  holding  back  the  enemy,  stood 
Horatius."  This  form  of  sentence  we  cd\\  periodic,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  loose,  or  straggling,  form  that  appends  detail 
after  detail  to  the  principal  statement;  as,  "Horatius  stood 
there  on  the  bridge,  holding  back  the  enemy." 

Each  form  has  its  use  and  does  not  exclude  the  other.  Both 
together  afford  variety.  If  a  writer  makes  his  sentences  too 
periodic  (and  this  is  easy  to  do),  he  seems  stilted  and  unnatural. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  he  is  too  loose  in  his  expression,  he 
fails  to  hold  his  reader  to  the  end  of  his  statement.  He 
should  aim,  then,  at  natural  ease,  which  at  the  same  time 
will  have  enough  reserve  to  hold  the  reader's  attention  and 
interest  to  the  very  end.    An  inexperienced  writer  is  likely 


2IO  IIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

to  be  loose  rather  than  periodic.    Therefore  in  practice  he 
should  frequently  and  consciously  use  the  periodic  form. 

There  are  various  degrees  of  periodicity  and  looseness. 
"If  any  one  had  rushed  suddenly  upon  us,  brave  though  we 
seemed  to  be,  like  timid  sheep  we  should  have  scattered  "  is 
strictly  periodic,  and  because  it  holds  back  the  main  thought 
too  long,  clearly  trying  to  crowd  in  all  the  minor  details,  it  is 
stilted.  By  transferring  "'  like  timid  sheep  "  to  the  very  end 
of  the  sentence  you  gain  in  effectiveness.  Even  though  you 
sacrifice  the  strict  periodic  form,  you  keep  a  form  that  is 
periodic  in  effect.  Writing  "  If  any  one  had  rushed  suddenly 
upon  us,  we  should  have  fled  like  timid  sheep,  though  we 
seemed  to  be  brave,"  you  have  a  sentence  partly  periodic,  it 
is  true,  but  in  effect  loose.  Transferring  the  conditional 
clause  to  the  very  end,  you  get  a  sentence  wholly  loose.  I-\)r 
that  reason  it  seems  ineffective,  rambling  on  after  the  mind 
has  grasped  the  main  statement.  Few  long  sentences  are 
wholly  periodic  or  wholly  loose  ;  their  structure  is  judged,  as 
a  rule,  by  the  general  effect. 

EXERCISE  1S6- Oral 
MAKING   SEXTKXCKS    IXXJSK   OR   PERIODIC 

Decide  whether  each  of  the  following  sentences  is  in  effect 
loose  or  periodic.  Change  to  the  other  form  and  comment 
on  the  result. 

1.  Once  more,  dear  friends,  to  celebrate  the  day  we  come. 
•  2.   He  died  early  this  morning,  just  as  the  bugles  were  sounding  the 
reveille  for  the  troops. 

3.  When  the  golden  summer  has  rounded  languidly  to  its  close, 
when  autumn  has  been  carried  forth  in  russet  winding  sheet,  then  all 
good  fellows  who  look  upon  holidays  as  a  chief  end  of  life  return  from 
moor  and  stream  and  begin  to  take  stock  of  gains  and  losses. 


VARIETY  21 

4.  What  did  our  forefathers  do  in  cases  of  illness,  living  as  they  did 
in  rural  districts,  even  before  the  country  variety  store  carried  its  supply 
of  remedies  ? 

5.  Down  he  fell,  brushing  against  the  yielding  leaves,  dashing  through 
the  crackling  twigs,  and  landing  finally  on  the  forest  mold. 

6.  Here  was  the  pitiful  case  of  a  man  twenty-odd  years  of  age,  with 
no  capacity  to  do  anything  worth  a  man's  wages  because  he  had  left 
school  and  had  been  at  work  since  his  fifteenth  birthday. 

7.  One  of  the  best  things  about  school  life  is  that  then  one  makes 
his  closest  friends. 

8.  One  and  inseparable  must  this  nation  remain ! 

EXERCISE  187  — Written 

USING   TERIODIC    SENTENCES 

Select  some  old  short  theme  and  rewrite  it,  using  only 
periodic  sentences.  What  is  the  effect .-'  Rewrite  it  in  loose 
sentences.  What  is  the  effect  ?  Finally,  write  the  paragraph 
in  the  most  effective  sentence  forms. 

VII.    Simple,  Compound,  and  Complex  Sentences 

Reference  was  made  earlier  in  this  chapter  to  the  three  forms 
of  sentences — simple,  compound,  and  complex.  These  forms, 
we  have  seen,  are  dependent  not  upon  the  length  of  the  sen- 
tences but  upon  their  grammatical  composition.  If  the  sentence 
contains  one  statement,  it  is  simple ;  if  it  is  composed  of  two 
or  more  of  equal  rank,  it  is  compound  ;  and  if  it  contains  a 
clause  modifier,  it  is  complex.  W^riting  that  consists  wholly, 
or -even  largely,  of  any  one  of  these  forms  seems  to  us  monoto- 
nous ;  all  three  forms,  properly  distributed,  help  to  effect  the 
variety  that  adds  charm  to  writing. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  three  forms  are 
interchangeable  ;  on  the  contrary,  each  fits  a  particular  need 
of  thought.    Just  as  we  have  found  that  there  are  "  blanket  " 


212  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

words,  \vc  find  that  writers,  young  and  old,  tend  to  a  blanket 
form  of  expression,  instead  of  taking  the  trouble  to  mold  the 
sentence  exactly  to  the  idea.  Variety  in  thought  form,  then, 
must  precede  variety  in  sentence  form  ;  but  in  order  that  it 
may  be  developed  and  increased,  it  must  be  expressed.  Thus 
exact  expression  will  encourage  careful  thought ;  and  varied 
thought,  on  the  other  hand,  will  demand  and  exercise  the 
several  sentence  forms. 

a.  Simple  sentences.  Enough  practice  has  already  been 
given,  perhaps,  in  the  simple  sentence.  In  the  chapter  on 
Unity  you  have  had  exercises  showing  that  what  was  meant 
for  a  simple  sentence  is  often  no  real  sentence  because  it 
contains  too  little  or  too  much  (see  Exercises  145,  146),  and 
in  this  chapter  are  several  exercises  showing  how  modifiers 
may  be  variously  added  to  the  single  statement. 

In  early  talking  and  writing  young  people  incline  to  use 
the  simple  sentence  exclusively.  Later  on  they  tend  to 
neglect  it  for  the  other  forms,  even  though  the  thought  is 
single  and  simple.  One  should  never  forget  that  the  simple 
sentence  is  always  a  safe  expression,  and  in  the  midst  of 
longer  and  more  pretentious  forms  it  is  sometimes  marvel- 
lously effective.  It  is  effective,  too,  in  expressing  the  ideas 
of  rapidity,  bluntness,  strength,  and  simplicity.  It  is  frequently 
the  best  form  for  a  conclusion.  An  excellent  illustration  is  the 
last  sentence  of  the  following  passage  from  "  Silas  Marner." 

Hardly  more  than  five  minutes  had  passed  since  he  entered  the 
cottage,  but  it  seemed  to  Dunstan  like  a  long  while ;  and,  though 
he  was  without  any  distinct  recognition  of  the  possibility  that  Marner 
might  be  alive  and  might  reenter  the  cottage  at  any  moment,  he  felt 
an  undefinable  dread  laying  hold  on  him  as  he  rose  to  his  feet  with 
the  bags  in  his  hand.  He  would  hasten  out  into  the  darkness,  and 
then  consider  what  he  should  do  with  the  bags.  He  closed  the  door 
behind  him  immediately  that  he  might  shut  in  the  stream  of  light ; 


VARIETY  213 

a  few  steps  would  be  enough  to  carry  him  beyond  betrayal  by  the 
gleams  from  the  shutter  chinks  and  the  latch  hole.  The  rain  and 
darkness  had  got  thicker,  and  he  was  glad  of  it ;  though  it  was  awk- 
ward walking  with  both  hands  filled,  so  that  it  was  as  much  as  he 
could  do  to  grasp  his  whip  along  with  one  of  the  bags.  But  when 
he  had  gone  a  yard  or  two  he  might  take  his  time.  So  he  stepped 
forward  into  the  darkness.  —  George  Eliot,  "  Silas  Marner" 


EXERCISE  188  — Ora/ 

STUDYING   THE   USE  OF   SIMPLE   SENTENCES 

Examine  a  page  from  each  of  several  books.  What  is  the 
proportion  of  simple  sentences  ?  When  a  simple  sentence  is 
used  well,  what  is  the  particular  effect  it  conveys  ?  Read  in 
class  and  comment  on  the  best  examples. 


/;.  Compound  sentences.  The  compound  form  of  sentence 
yokes  together  two  or  more  statements  of  equal  value,  equal 
not  only  grammatically  but  also  in  helping  to  produce  some 
larger  effect.  "  The  game  was  interesting  "  and  "  The  crowd 
yelled  "  are  statements  of  equal  grammatical  rank,  but  they 
can  hardly  be  combined  into  an  effective  compound  sentence. 
"In  the  excitement  boys  yelled  and  girls  shrieked  "  is  a  good 
compound  sentence,  however,  for  the  two  elements  together 
give  one  impression  of  the  actions  of  the  crowd.  In  other 
words,  a  compound  sentence,  like  all  others,  must  have  unity. 

The  elements  of  a  compound  sentence  may  be  yoked 
together  in  four  ways  : 

1,  When  one  proposition  is  merely  added  to  another, 
usually  by  au(^,  the  relation  is  copulative. 

2.  When  one  proposition  is  contrasted  with  another, 
usually  by  /;///,  the  relation  is  adversative. 


214  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

3.  When  a  choice  is  given  between  two  propositions,  they 
being  joined  by  or  or  nor,  the  relation  is  alternative. 

4.  When  the  second  proposition  shows  the  consequence 
of  the  former,  being  joined  to  it  by  such  words  as  therefore 
and  hence,  the  relation  is  illatwe.  Note  that  illative  conjunc- 
tions are  alwa)s  preceded  by  a  semicolon  or  some  heavier 
mark  of  punctuation. 

When  no  connective  is  expressed,  especially  in  series,  ajiel 
is  usually  understood. 

EXERCISE  189  — OraZ 
VARYING   CONNECTIVES   OF   COMPOUND    SENTENCES 

Decide  whether  the  relation  of  the  following  pairs  of  state- 
ments should  be  copulative,  adversative,  alternative,  or  illative. 
Then  join  them  so  as  to  show  this  relation. 

1.  The  old  soldier  was  very  poor.  Having  a  pension,  he  was  never 
in  actual  want. 

2.  The  switchman  was  utterly  incompetent.  The  freight  train  was 
derailed  before  it  left  the  yards. 

3.  Germany  has  been  building  huge  warships.  England,  to  retain 
her  supremacy  on  the  sea,  has  been  building  more  dreadnoughts. 

4.  The  Democratic  leader  in  the  House  of  Representatives  did  not 
approve  of  Mr.  Hobson's  naval  plan.    He  began  to  ridicule  it. 

5.  Mr.  Williams  proposed  that  we  build  a  ship  twice  as  large  as 
England's  "  Dreadnought."  With  droll  humor  he  proposed  that  we  call 
it  "  Scared  o'  Nothing." 

6.  Under  the  new  plan  the  retired  employee  could  receive  a  pension. 
He  could  retire  to  the  home  provided  by  the  company. 

7.  After  watching  the  flights  of  the  aviators,  Ben  was  satisfied  t'> 
travel  on  trains.    Sam  had  a  wild  desire  to  fly. 

8.  Shakespeare  is  good  reading  for  the  scholar.  Give  me  Stevenson 
and  Scott. 

9.  The  boys  cleaned  the  hall  for  the  party.  The  girls  decorated  it 
with  autumn  leaves. 


VARIETY  215 

10.  Being  worn  out  by  standing  so  long  at  the  stores,  I  sank  exhausted 
upon  the  couch.  As  the  vision  of  my  algebra  problems  rose  before  me, 
I  got  up  and  tried  to  work. 

11.  As  he  opened  the  door  he  saw  on  the  steps  a  covered  basket. 
He  heard  a  faint  wail  from  its  depths. 

12.  Should  he  call  the  police,  he  wondered.  Should  he  take  the 
basket  into  the  house.? 

13.  In  some  cases,  he  felt,  an  hour  of  mistake  was  worth  an  age  of 
truth.    He  was  not  sure  of  this  case. 

14.  To  make  his  part  effective  an  actor  must  not  rant  in  his  stage 
business.    He  must  make  his  speeches  seem  to  the  audience  natural. 

15.  These  things  the  actors  last  night  did  not  do.  We  were  all 
disappointed  with  the  presentation  of  the  play. 

c.  Complex  sentences.  Hardly  ever  does  any  one  express 
a  sentence  so  simple  that  it  needs  no  modifier  whatever.  It 
has  already  been  shown  that  a  sentence  simple  in  grammatical 
form  may  contain  a  number  of  modifiers.  If  any  one  of  these 
modifiers,  however,  rises  to  the  dignity  of  a  clause,  we  call 
the  sentence  complex.  Hence  the  difference  between  a  simple 
sentence  and  a  complex  sentence  is  often  merely  a  difference 
of  the  form  of  the  modifier.  A  clause  more  than  other  modi- 
fiers emphasizes  the  detail  which  it  expresses  and  shows 
exactly  its  relationship  to  the  rest  of  the  thought. 

Inasmuch  as  the  modifiers  in  a  complex  sentence  are  thus 
emphasized  and  definitely  related,  this  form  of  sentence  is 
more  likely,  perhaps,  than  either  of  the  other  two  forms,  to 
express  exact  thought  and  to  be  well  unified.  The  effective 
use  of  many  kinds  of  complex  sentences  manifests  a  good 
mind,  well  developed.  In  this  chapter  you  have  already  seen 
the  value  of  complex  sentences  to  variety,  and  have  had  some 
practice  in  making  them  by  using  adjective  and  adverb  clauses. 
In  the  next  chapter  you  will  have  other  exercises  emphasizing 
the  expression  of  exact  relations  of  ideas  in  complex  sentences. 


2i6  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

In  passing  it  may  be  noted  that  there  is  still  another  form 
of  sentence,  a  compound  sentence  of  which  one  or  more 
propositions  are  complex.  Being  merely  a  combination  of 
compound  and  complex  sentences,  however,  this  form  pre- 
sents no  new  difficulty. 

EXERCISE  190  —  Written 

TRACTICING   THE   USE   OF   SIMPEE,   COMPLEX,   AND 
COMPOUND    SENTENCES 

Select  some  old  short  theme  and  rewrite  it,  making  each 
sentence  simple.  What  is  the  effect  ?  Rewrite  it,  using  as 
many  complex  sentences  as  possible.  What  is  the  effect  ? 
How  many  good  compound  sentences  can  you  make  in  the 
paragraph  .?  Finally,  after  deciding  which  ideas  are  simple, 
which  co-ordinate  with  some  other,  and  which  dependent, 
write  the  theme,  using  such  a  variety  of  sentence  forms  as 
will  secure  the  best  effect. 

71    VARIETY    IN    PARAGRAPHS 

So  far  in  this  book  no  formal  explanation  has  been  made 
of  paragraphs.  In  all  of  your  reading,  however,  you  have 
taken  them  more  or  less  as  a  matter  of  course,  as  they  help 
you  to  see  the  steps  the  author  takes  in  progress  toward  a 
larger  effect.  Perhaps  without  realizing  the  cause,  many  readers 
shrink  from  pages  of  print  unbroken  by  paragraphs.  Such 
reading  makes  demands  for  close  attention  and  constructive 
thought ;  failing  these,  it  will  mean  little.  On  the  other  hand, 
pages  broken  into  paragraphs  of  one  hundred  fifty  words,  or 
thereabouts,  give  the  attention  occasional  resting  places  and 
help  the  reader  considerably  in  his  effort  to  see  the  larger 
meaning  of  the  author.    You  have  used  paragraphs,  too,  in 


VARIETY  217 

your  own  composition,  making  a  new  division  wherever  you 
felt  a  distinct  change  in  the  thought. 

A  paragraph,  if  we  give  it  a  formal  definition,  is  a  group 
of  sentences  developing  in  logical  sequence  one  dominant 
idea.  In  other  words,  each  paragraph  presents  one  idea  which, 
if  it  be  a  part  of  a  longer  composition,  is  a  step  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  idea  of  the  whole.  Often  the  thought  can  be  de- 
veloped in  one  paragraph  ;  and  occasionally,  particularly  in 
dialogue,  one  sentence  alone  is  set  off  as  a  paragraph. 

The  paragraph  differs  from  the  sentence,  then,  in  that  it  is 
not  the  mere  statement  of  an  idea  but  the  development  of  it. 
And  this  development,  according  to  the  definition,  must  have 
a  logical  sequence,  —  that  is,  it  must  build  up  the  central, 
governing  idea  by  means  of  sentences  arranged  in  such  a 
reasonable  way  that  the  reader  will  get  one  impression  from 
the  whole. 

EXERCISE  191  — Oral 

TESTING   THEMES   FOR   UNITY   OF   PARAGRAPHS 

Read  several  of  your  old  themes  and  test  the  paragraphs. 
What,  in  a  few  words,  does  each  one  try  to  say  ? 

If  you  find  among  your  old  themes  well-unified  paragraphs 
and  sum  up  the  content  of  each  in  a  few  words,  you  give 
what  is  usually  called  the  fo/y/r,  or  topu:  sentence.  This  will 
express,  then,  in  a  brief  form  what  the  whole  paragraph  is 
meant  to  develop.  The  topic  is  not  always  formulated  by  the 
writer ;  but  if  the  paragraph  is  well  unified,  its  content  may 
easily  be  condensed  into  one  good  sentence.  If  the  topic  be 
expressed,  it  is  usually  written  at  or  near  the  beginning  of  the 
paragraph,  though  occasionally  it  is  reserved  until  the  end. 


2i8  FIRST  liOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  192  — Oral 

FINDING   TOPICS   OF   PARAGRAPHS 

What  is  the  topic  in  each  of  the  paragraphs  on  pages  72  f.  ? 

As  you  find  the  topic  sentences  of  well-unified  paragraphs, 
you  will  notice  that  each  one  demands  its  own  kind  of  devel- 
opment. One  is  a  terse,  striking  sentence,  needing  explana- 
tion ;  another,  an  assertion,  requiring  for  its  development 
proof ;  a  third,  an  abstraction  that  will  not  be  clear  without 
illustration.  And  so  others  demand  details,  contrast,  and  the 
like.  Usually  the  development  is  not  by  one  of  these  means, 
but  by  a  combination  of  two,  or  even  more,  of  them. 

I.  Development  by  Details 

Notice  that  in  the  following  paragraph  the  topic  is  expressed 
by  a  phrase,  which  is  developed  by  a  number  of  details. 

I  said  I  would  n't  write  anything  more  concerning  the  Ameri- 
can people  for  two  months ;  but  I  may  as  well  speak  out  to  you. 
They  are  friendly,  earnest,  hospitable,  kind,  frank,  very  often  ac- 
complished, far  less  prejudiced  than  you  would  suppose,  warm- 
hearted, fervent,  and  enthusiastic.  They  are  chivalrous  in  their  uni- 
versal politeness  to  women,  courteous,  obliging,  disinterested  ;  and, 
when  they  conceive  a  perfect  affection  for  a  man,  entirely  devoted 
to  him.  I  have  met  thousands  of  people  of  all  ranks  and  grades, 
and  have  never  once  been  asked  an  offensive  or  impolite  question. 
The  State  is  a  parent  to  its  people ;  has  a  parental  watch  over  all 
poor  people,  sick  persons,  and  captives.  The  common  men  render 
you  assistance  in  the  streets,  and  would  revolt  from  the  offer  of  a 
piece  of  money.  The  desire  to  oblige  is  universal ;  and  I  have 
never  once  travelled  in  a  public  conveyance  without  making  some 
generous  acquaintance  whom  I  have  been  sorry  to  part  from,  and 
who  has  in  many  cases  come  on  miles  to  see  us  again. 

Dickens,  "  Letters  from  America  " 


VARIETY  219 

EXERCISE  193— Written 

DEVELOPING   TOPICS    BY    DETAILS 

Develop  the  following  topic  sentences  by  giving  a  number 
of  details  for  each  one,  then  try  to  arrange  the  details  so  that 
they  seem  to  come  naturally.  See  that  they  all  in  one  way  or 
another  support  the  topic  sentence.  Revise  your  themes  to 
see  if  you  can  secure  greater  variety  in  the  form  and  position 
of  your  modifiers. 

1.  A  boy  on  the  farm  has  many  chores  to  do. 

2.  When  one  tries  to  study  in  school  he  finds  many  distractions. 

3.  My  grandfather  is  an  ideal  gentleman. 

4.  The  mail  carrier  has  a  hard  job. 

5.  I  like  to  watch  the  small  children  at  play. 

6.  It  is  interesting  to  listen  to  the  primary  class  recite. 

7.  Ned  Serviss  has  all  the  qualities  of  a  popular  fellow  at  school. 

8.  Her  trials  at  school  were,  in  her  opinion,  unendurable. 

9.  The  drive  was  an  interesting  one. 

10.  The  pawnshop  window  is  always  interesting. 

■   II.  Development  by  Illustration 

What  sentence  expresses  the  central  thought  of  the  follow- 
ing paragraph  ?  What  is  the  illustration  of  the  topic  ?  What 
application  is  given  of  this  ?  Do  the  topic,  the  illustration, 
and  the  application  so  combine  as  to  effect  perfect  unity  and 
clearness .'' 

The  cutting  power  of  a  stream  of  water  depends  very  much  on 
the  amount  of  sand  or  pebbles  it  has  in  it.  If  we  drive  a  stream  of 
pure  water  against  a  pane  of  glass,  it  will  not  affect  it,  even  if  we 
keep  it  moving  at  a  high  speed  for  days ;  but,  if  we  have  a  little 
sand  in  it,  the  water  will  drive  the  sand  against  the  glass,  and  in  a 
few  minutes  it  will  appear  like  ground  glass,  from  the  cutting  action 
of  the  sand.  In  the  same  way,  the  river-water  gets  a  power  of 
wearing  stones.  —  Shaler,  "  First  Book  in  Geology  " 


220  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

EXERCISE  194  -  Written 
DEVELOPING   TOTICS   BY    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Develop  the  following  topic  sentences  by  one  or  more  illus- 
trations for  each,  making  the  whole  paragraph  give  one  effect. 
Revise  your  themes  for  the  purpose  of  securing  greater  variety 
in  sentence  forms. 

1.  All  is  not  gold  that  glistens. 

2.  Better  is  a  little  with  righteousness  than  great  revenues  without 
right. 

3.  There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath  nothing ;  there  is  that 
maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath  great  riches. 

4.  A  good  policeman  must  have  kindliness  and  judgment  as  well  as 
physical  bravery. 

5.  Laboratory  experiments  are  like  babies :  they  won't  always  behave 
well  before  company. 

6.  The  laziest  boy  in  school  always  thinks  he  has  the  most  to  do. 

7.  A  rolling  stone  does  sometimes  gather  moss. 

8.  Proverbs  are  sometimes  misunderstood. 

9.  It  is  marvellous  how  perfectly  animals  are  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions under  which  they  live. 

in.  Development  chiefly  by  Explanation 

Find  the  topic  sentence  of  each  of  the  following  para- 
graphs. Does  every  other  sentence  in  the  paragraph  help 
develop  the  central  idea.?  How.?  In  general,  what  is  the 
means  of  development  ? 

The  fact  is  too  often  lost  sight  of,  or  not  known  at  all,  that  the 
tops  of  the  trees  absolutely  govern  the  roots.  The  leaves  are  the 
lungs  and  the  stomach  of  the  tree.  The  food  is  digested,  so  to 
speak,  in  the  leaves  and  there  made  accessible  for  the  tree  as  a 
whole.  If  a  tree  be  fine  of  foliage  it  will  be  powerful  in  all  its  parts, 
because  it  has  the  capacity  to  take  so  much  nourishment  from  the 
air,  —  four-fifths  of  it  being  nitrogen,  which  is  the  chief  source  of 


VARIETY     -  •  221 

supply  for  plant-food.  The  sun,  too.  plays  its  important  part,  — 
condensed  sunshine  and  condensed  air  are  the  chief  articles  of  the 
tree's  diet. 

BuRBAXK,  quoted  by  Harvvood,  "  New  Creations 
in  Plant  Life  " 

In  butter-making  bacteria  are  direct  allies  of  the  dairyman.  Cream 
as  it  is  obtained  from  milk,  will  always  contain  bacteria  in  large 
quantity,  and  these  bacteria  will  grow  as  readily  in  cream  as  in  milk. 
The  buttermaker  seldom  churns  his  cream  when  it  is  freshly  ob- 
tained from  milk,  but  rather  subjects  it  to  a  process  known  as 
"  ripening "  or  "  souring "  before  putting  it  into  the  churn.  In 
"  ripening,"  the  cream  simply  stands  in  a  vat  from  twelve  hours  to 
three  days.  During  this  period  certain  changes  take  place.  The 
original  bacteria,  having  a  chance  to  grow,  become  extremely 
numerous  and  thus  cause  the  cream  to  become  somewhat  sour,  to 
become  slightly  curdled,  and  to  acquire  a  peculiarly  pleasant  taste 
and  an  aroma  that  was  not  present  in  the  fresh  cream.  After  this, 
the  cream  is  ready  for  the  churn. 

•    Adapted  from  Conn,  "  The  Story  of  Germ  Life '' 


EXERCISE  195  — Written 

DEVELOPING   TOPICS   BY   EXPLANATION 

Develop  the  following  proverbs  and  maxims  by  explana- 
tion. If  the  point  can  be  made  clearer  by  the  use  of  an  illus- 
tration, add  one.  Revise  your  theme  carefully  to  secure  variety 
of  all  kinds. 

1.  "  Buy,  buy  "  is  a  pretty  song,  but  "  pay,  pay  "  is  an  ugly  tune. 

2.  A  carpenter  is  known  by  his  chips. 

3.  Better  the  feet  slip  than  the  tongue. 

4.  You  must  lose  a  fly  to  catch  a  trout. 

5.  The  mouse  that  hath  one  hole  is  quickly  taken. 

6.  The  exception  proves  the  rule. 

7.  The  bird  in  the  bush  is  worth  two  in  the  hat. 

8.  A  bad  beginning  makes  a  good  ending. 


223  ■  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFnON 

IV.  Development  hy  a  Combination  of  Means 
In  the  following  paragraph  the  topic  is  suggested  in  the 
first  sentence  ;   then   follow  a  contrast  and  an  explanation ; 
and,  finally,  the  topic  is  definitely  stated  at  the  end. 

If  we  look  at  the  crop  of  a  pigeon,  before  its  young  leave  the 
nest,  we  shall  discover  a  function  of  this  organ  which  would  other- 
wise never  be  suspected.  Wc  know  that  herons  and  some  other 
birds  feed  their  young  on  fish  half  digested  by  themselves.  This 
process  is  known  as  regurgitation.  If  we  have  ever  seen  a  pigeon 
with  the  beak  of  its  young  half  down  its  throat,  pumping  something 
into  the  offspring's  mouth,  we  have  probably  thought  that  a  similar 
habit  was  being  shown,  —  half-digested  grain  taking  the  place  of  the 
heron's  fish.  But  such  is  not  the  case.  At  the  time  of  the  breed- 
ing season,  the  folds  of  membrane  in  the  crops  of  both  parent 
pigeons  thicken  and  secrete  or  peel  off  in  curdy  cheesy  masses  — 
"pigeon's  milk"  some  call  it — and  this  forms  the  food  of  the 
young  birds.  So  in  pigeons  the  crop  not  only  receives  food,  but  at 
times  provides  it.  —  Beebe,  "  The  Bird." 

The  following  long  paragraph  is  developed  by  still  another 
combination.  First  comes  the  topic  sentence,  then  a  contrast, 
then  an  explanation,  and  then,  finally,  a  summar)'. 

Against  hydrophobia  Pasteur  has  devised  a  method  of  inocula- 
tion which  can  be  applied  after  the  individual  has  been  bitten  by  a 
rabid  animal.  Apparendy,  however,  this  preventive  inoculation  is 
dependent  upon  a  different  principle  from  vaccination  against  an- 
thrax. It  does  not  give  rise  to  a  mild  form  of  the  disease,  thus  pro- 
tecting the  individual,  but  rather  to  an  acquired  tolerance  of  the 
chemical  poisons  produced  by  the  disease.  It  is  a  well-known  physio- 
logical fact  that  the  body  can  become  accustomed  to  tolerate  poisons 
if  inured  to  them  by  successively  larger  and  larger  doses.  It  is  by  this 
power,  apparently,  that  the  inoculation  against  hydrophobia  produces 
its  effect.  Material  containing  the  hydrophobia  poison  (taken  from 
the  spinal  cord  of  a  rabbit  dead  with  disease)  is  injected  into  the 
individual  after  he  has  been  bitten  by  a  rabid  animal.  The  poison- 
ous material  in  the  first  injection  is  very  weak,  but  in  the  following 


VARIETY  223 

it  gradually  grows  more  powerful.  The  result  is  that  after  a  short 
time  the  individual  has  acquired  the  power  of  resisting  the  hydro- 
phobia poisons.  Before  the  incubation  period  of  the  original  in- 
fectious matter  from  the  bite  of  the  rabid  animal  has  passed,  the 
inoculated  individual  has  so  thoroughly  acquired  a  tolerance  of  the 
poison  that  he  successfully  resists  the  attack  of  the  infection.  This 
method  of  inoculation  thus  neutralizes  the  effects  of  the  disease  by 
anticipating  them. 

Adapted  from  Coxx,  "  The  Story  of  Germ  Life  " 

Sometimes,  as  in  the  following  paragraph,  the  conclusion 
comes  from  concrete  experience,  which  is  used  as  evidence. 

The  distracted  oven-bird,  feigning  a  broken  wing  as  she  crosses 
your  path  in  the  woods,  invites  pity  or  perhaps  destruction,  if  only 
you  will  spare  those  speckled  treasures  which  she  thinks  you  know 
must  be  somewhere  near,  although,  but  for  her  frantic  performance, 
you  might  not  have  discovered  the  well-concealed  nest.  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren,  by  the  very  exuberance  of  his  bubbling,  continuous 
song,  betrays  the  precious  secret  that  Jenny,  by  her  excited  scold- 
ings, no  better  conceals.  But  the  bobolink,  swaying  on  the  stalk  of 
timothy  in  the  meadow,  and  singing  with  rollicking  abandon,  is 
quite  as  clever  as  the  ventriloquial  yellow-throat  in  luring  you  from 
his  nest  hidden  in  the  grassy  jungle.  How  cleverly  the  birds  have 
learned  to  guard  nest  secrets. 

Adapted  from  Blaxchax,  "  How  to  Attract  the  Birds  " 

EXERCISE  196  — Written 

DEVELOPING   TOriCS    BY   VARIOUS    MEANS 

Develop  the  following  topic  sentences  by  a  short  explana- 
tion followed  by  a  contrast  and  illustration,  or  by  any  similar 
combination  : 

1.  To-day  a  farmer  may  live  like  a  king. 

2.  Though  capable  of  great  idleness,  he  never  failed  to  be  ready  for 
all  sorts  of  adventures  and  excursions. 

3.  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 


224  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

4.  Delays  have  dangerous  ends. 

5.  A  dwarf  on  a  giant's  shoulders  sees  the  farther  of  the  two. 

6.  His  bark  is  worse  than  his  bite. 

V.    Development  by  Proof 

The  topic  of  the  paragraph,  as  has  been  noted,  is  usually 
stated  near  the  beginning  ;  but  not  infrequently,  especially  if 
the  writer  is  tr^nng  to  convince  an  opponent  known  to  be  preju- 
diced against  the  proposition,  it  is  reserved  until  the  end.  "  You 
agree  with  this ;  you  cannot  doubt  that ;  therefore  you  must 
admit  the  proposition,"  is  the  way  the  argument  runs. 

EXERCISE  197  —  Written 
DEVELOPING   TOPICS    BY    PROOF 

Develop  the  following  topic  sentences  by  giving  proof. 
Place  the  topic  in  the  more  effective  place,  either  at  the 
beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

1.  The  umpire,  however  honest,  should  not  be  a  partisan  of  either  side. 

2.  Regular  term  examinations  are  necessary  in  high  schools. 

3.  It  would  be  better  to  have  the  weekly  holiday  on  Monday  than 
on  Saturday. 

4.  Truth  is  more  important  than  physical  bravery. 

5.  college  is  the  one  I  should  attend. 

VI.    Development  by  Cause  and  Result 

The  three  following  paragraphs  are  elaborated  by  state- 
ments of  cause  and  result.  In  each,  select  the  topic  sentence 
and  show  how  it  is  developed.  Does  each  writer  make  out 
his  case .-' 

The  Western  Wood  Frog  is  very  awkward,  because  of  the 
massive  build  and  great  length  of  its  hind  legs.  When  walking,  it 
is  ludicrous  in  appearance,  and  it  is  still  more  ridiculous  when  it 


VARIETY  225 

captures  a  fish  from  under  the  surface  of  the  water  and  swallows 
it.  The  frog  tries  to  brace  himself  on  the  long  hind  legs  so  as  to 
use  the  hands,  both  at  the  same  time  to  keep  the  fish  away  from 
the  angles  of  the  jaws  and  to  push  it  into  the  mouth.  To  brace 
himself  against  slippery  mud  is  not  easy,  and,  besides,  the  frog  loses 
his  balance  because  both  hands  are  lifted  at  once,  so  he  makes  a  great 
kicking  and  splashing  before  he  finally  swallows  the  fish. 

Adapted  from  Dickerson,  in 
"  The  Frog  Book  " 

Dimmock  convinced  himself  that  a  poisonous  saliva  is  intro- 
duced by  the  bite  of  a  mosquito.  He  noticed  that  if  a  mosquito 
punctures  the  skin  without  entering  a  blood-vessel,  although  it  may 
insert  its  proboscis  for  nearly  its  full  length,  no  poisonous  effect  is 
produced  upon  the  skin  ;  but  when  the  proboscis  strikes  blood  and 
the  insect  draws  its  fill,  the  subsequent  swelling  and  poisonous 
effect  are  obvious.  He  argued  that  these  effects  indicate  a  constant 
outpouring  of  some  sort  of  poisonous  fluid  during  the  blood-sucking 
process.  —  Adapted  from  Howard,  "  Mosquitoes  " 

Sometimes  the  day  of  the  toads'  final  transformation  from  tad- 
poles coincides  with  the  day  of  a  gentle  rain.  They  cover  the 
sidewalks  and  the  roadways.  The  same  apparent  deluge  of  toads 
may  come  if  a  warmer  rain  occurs  shortly  after  the  time  of  their 
change  to  land  animals.  They  are  so  delicate  at  first,  so  used  to  life 
in  water,  that  they  travel  only  when  the  air  is  moist. 

DiCKERSOX,  "  The  Frog  Book  " 

EXERCISE  19S  — Written 

DEVELOPING   TOPICS   BY    CAUSES   OR   RESULTS 

Develop  the  following  topic  sentences  by  giving  either  the 
causes  or  the  results  : 

1.  A  student  often  has  his  hardest  time  just  after  he  has  turned  over 
a  new  leaf. 

2.  An  unexpected  holiday  is  good  (bad)  for  the  school. 

3.  Mr.  A  has  better  crops  (cows,  business,  chickens)  than  anybody 
else  in  the  neighborhood. 


226  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

4.  Grandmother  has  better  things  to  eat  than  any  other  housekeeper 
I  know. 

5.  I  know  a  man  who  believes  in  the  old  adage  "  Early  to  bed,  early 
to  rise." 

6.  Our  school  some  time  ago  decided  to . 


EXERCISE  199  — Ora/ 
DEVELOPING   TOPICS   BY   VARIOUS   MEANS 

Think  over  these  topic  sentences  and  decide  what  method 
of  development  would  be  best  for  each.  Don't  confine  your- 
self, necessarily,  to  the  combinations  herein  illustrated.  Be 
prepared  to  develop  orally  in  class  any  topic  sentence. 

1.  For  the  first  time  the  grandmother  spent  Thanksgiving  Day  all 
alone. 

•  2.  He  was  the  most  striking  man  I  ever  saw. 

•  3.  It  is  great  fun  to  get  up  early  and  go  down  to  see  the  circus  unload. 

4.  The  phrase  "  upwards  of  a  hundred  "  is  often  misunderstood. 

5.  Saturdays  and  Mondays  are  for  me  very  different  days. 

6.  It  would  (not)  be  wise  to  have  school  six  days  in  the  week. 

7.  Occasionally  the  old  miser  would  do  something  very  generous. 

8.  Sunday  newspapers  should  be  prohibited. 

9.  Sunday  newspapers  are  a  necessity. 

10.  In  the  spring  come  the  freshets. 

11.  I  tried  for  fifteen  minutes  to  get  a  look  at  the  squirrel. 

12.  To  make  a  child  sit  in  church  through  a  long,  dry  sermon  is  a 
common  form  of  cruelty. 

13.  Lessie  put  her  hair  up  for  the  first  time  and  wore  her  long- dress. 

14.  Last  summer  I  tried  to  make  some  money  by  getting  subscriptions 
to Magazine. 

15.  Only  once  have  I  been  "  scared  stiff." 

16.  The  new  cook  came  yesterday. 

17.  Did  you  ever  ride  on  a  merry-go-round.?    I  did once. 

18.  A  bird  in  the  bush  is  worth  two  in  a  hat. 
19-  is  a  picture  that  I  like  very  much. 

20.    Dickens  entertains  me  more  than  Scott  does. 


VARIETY  227 

21.  I  went  through  the  pockets  in  my  small  brother's  coat. 

22.  At  times   I   thought  my  father  very  severe,  but  usually  he  was 
lenient  with  my  faults. 

23.  Our  pastor  argues  that  it  is  unwise  to  feed  tramps. 

24.  The  beggar  looked  through  the  window  at  the  cheery  glow  of 
the  fire. 

25.  I  always  get  up  mornings  the  same  way. 

26.  I  should  like  once  in  my  life  to  hear  a  parrot  really  talk. 

27.  The  long  drought  will  be  bad  for  the  gardens. 

28.  Constant  dripping  will  wear  the  hardest  stone. 

29.  "  Needles  and  pins,  needles  and  pins  "  —  what  becomes  of 
them  all? 

30.  I  found  an  old  diary  of  mine  the  other  day. 

31.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  bravery  and  daring. 

32.  There  are  several  kinds  of  slang. 

E.    VARIETY   IN   TROPES 

Clever  writers  often  give  variety  to  their  compositions,  and 
thus  gain  interest,  by  using  tropes,  or  figures  of  speech  ;  that 
is  to  say,  for  the  sake  of  beauty  or  of  emphasis,  they  use 
words  with  unusual  suggestion.  When  Holmes  wrote,  for 
instance,  "  Good  feeling  helps  society  to  make  liars  of  most 
of  us,  —  not  absolute  liars,  but  such  careless  handlers  of  truth 
that  its  sharp  corners  get  terribly  rounded,"  he  used  words 
with  their  usual  suggestion  until  he  came  to  "  handlers  of 
truth,"  etc.  There  his  words  begin  to  take  on  unusual  sug- 
gestion. We  do  not  really  handle  truth,  nor  has  its  sharp 
corners  to  be  rounded  off ;  but  the  expression  does  actually 
make  the  thought  clearer  and  stronger  for  us  than  an  un- 
adorned statement  could  do.  The  gain  in  interest  that  comes 
from  the  use  of  these  comparisons  or  tropes  has  already  been 
suggested  (see  Exercise  116). 

Tropes  are  pleasing  if  they  really  add  something  of  beauty 
or  strength  or  clearness  to  the  bare  idea.    This  will  follow 


228  FIRST  1300K  OF  COMPOSmOX 

only  if  the  comparison  seems  new  and  natural,  and  if  it 
recalls  an  experience  more  beautiful  or  strong  or  clear  than 
the  bare  idea.  But  worn-out  tropes  or  unnatural  ones  must 
be  ineffective. 

EXERCISE  200  -  Oral 

STUDYING   SOME   FIGURES   OF   SPEECH 

Is  Dickens  effective  in  the  following  figures  of  speech  ?  Why  ? 

And  a  breezy,  goose-skinned,  blue-nosed,  red-eyed,  stony-toed, 
tooth-chattering  place  it  was  to  wait  in  in  the  winter  time,  as  Toby 
\'^eck  well  knew. 

Most  slang  is  based  on  the  pleasure  that  we  get  from  see- 
ing and  suggesting  likenesses.  At  first  a  piece  of  slang  may 
be  very  amusing  and  forcible.  It  is  not  hard  to  imagine  the 
occasion  that  first  called  forth  the  expression  "Rubber!" 
and,  further,  to  join  in  the  smile  that  ran  around  as  the 
hearers  associated  in  their  minds  the  elasticity  of  caoutchouc 
and  of  the  boy's  neck.  After  a  while,  however,  the  expres- 
sion became  stale  and  flat,  and  now  it  has  lost  practically  all 
the  force  it  ever  had. 

Common  meanings  of  a  large  part  of  our  reputable  words 
have  come  about  in  just  the  same  manner.  Rubber  itself  is 
so  called  because  the  gummy  substance  was  used  for  rubbing 
out  pencil  marks.  We  can  readily  see  what  picturesqueness 
has  been  lost  in  words  by  looking  up  the  dcrixation  of  daisy, 
nasturtiuni,  conspire,  and  attention,  and  by  considering  the 
derived  meanings  of  Jiead,  arm,  and  ^uinj^. 

Having  perceived,  then,  one  point  of  likeness  in  two  appar- 
endy  dissimilar  things,  a  writer  may  express  this  likeness  or 
he  may  merely  suggest  it.  By  an  expression  of  the  likeness 
he  creates  a  simile  ;  by  the  suggestion  of  it,  a  metaphor.    He 


VARIETY  229 

may  write,  "  Laura  is  like  a  butterfly  "  (a  simile),  or  "  Laura 
is  a  butterfly  "  (a  metaphor). 

A  mere  comparison  of  two  things  clearly  similar  does  not, 
however,  constitute  a  trope  ;  for  example,  "  This  book  is  like 
that  one."  There  are  too  many  points  of  likeness,  in  the  first 
place,  and,  in  the  second,  the  comparison  adds  nothing  to  the 
bare  statement  of  fact.  It  does  not  draw  upon  the  reader's  or 
hearer's  experience  or  in  any  way  stimulate  his  imagination, 

EXERCISE  201  -  Oral 
STUDYING  SIMILES  AND  METAPHORS 

The  following  passage  from  "  The  Autocrat  of  the  Break- 
fast-Table "  is  crowded  with  comparisons,  some  implied,  some 
clearly  stated,  and  some  including  others.  Select  the  similes 
and  metaphors.    Tell  what  each  adds  to  the  bare  idea. 

Did  you  ever  happen  to  see  that  soft-spoken  and  velvet-handed 
steam  engine  at  the  Mint.''  The  smooth  piston  slides  backwrard  and 
forward  as  a  lady  might  slip  her  delicate  finger  in  and  out  of  a  ring. 
The  engine  lays  one  of  its  fingers  calmly,  but  firmly,  upon  a  bit  of 
metal ;  it  is  a  coin  now,  and  will  remember  that  touch,  and  tell  a 
new  race  about  it,  when  the  date  upon  it  is  crusted  over  with  twenty 
centuries.  So  it  is  that  a  great  silent-moving  misery  puts  a  new 
stamp  on  us  in  an  hour  or  in  a  moment,  as  sharp  an  impression 
as  if  it  had  taken  a  lifetime  to  engrave  it. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 

EXERCISE  202  —  Oral  or  Written 
MAKING  VARIOUS   TROPES 
Make  original  similes  and  metaphors  to  show : 

1.  How  hard  the  ice  is  when  you  fall. 

2.  How  soft  your  bed  is  at  night. 

3.  How  crooked  a  road  is. 

4.  How  dry  a  piece  of  old  bread  is. 


230  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

5.  How  ugly  a  man  is. 

6.  How  straight  a  path  is. 

7.  How  interesting  a  book  was.    (For  example,  "  It  absorbed  me.") 

8.  How  eager  you  were  to  do  something. 

9.  How  happy  a  certain  day  was. 

10.  How  horrible  some  sight  was. 

11.  How  something  surprised  you.  (For  example,  "  It  slapped  me 
in  the  face.") 

12.  How  dull  the  lecture  was. 

13.  How  long  something  is. 

14.  How  a  girl  wept. 

15.  How  cross  a  person  was. 

EXERCISE  203  —  Written 
TEST   THEME 

Write  a  narrative  on  any  subject  you  choose.  In  telling 
this  story  give  attention  to  all  devices  that  will  add  interest 
and  give  variety.    Then  revise  for  sentence  structure. 

RULES   AND    EXERCISES    IN    GOOD   FORM  i 
I.    Punctuation 
Exercise  A 

Explain  the  punctuation  and  write  from  dictation : 

The  carriage  arrived  in  front  of  us,  a  pace  distant  from  the  pillar. 
"  Hurrah  !  "  shouted  many  voices. 

"  Hurrah !  "  shouted  Coretti,  after  the  others. 

The  King  glanced  at  his  face,  and  his  eye  dwelt  for  a  moment  on 
his  three  medals. 

Then  Coretti  lost  his  head,  and  roared,  "  The  fourth  battalion  of  the 
forty-ninth !  " 

The  King,  who  had  turned  away,  turned  towards  us  again,  and  looking 
Coretti  straight  in  the  eye,  reached  his  hand  out  of  the  carriage. 

Coretti  gave  one  leap  forwards  and  clasped  it.  The  carriage  passed 
on ;  the  crowd  broke  in  and  separated  us ;  we  lost  sight  of  the  elder 
Coretti.    But  it  was  only  for  a  moment.    We  found  him  again  directly, 

1  Continued  from  page  iSi. 


VARIETY  231 

panting,  with  wet  eyes,  calling  for  his  son  by  name,  and  holding  his 
hand  on  high.  His  son  flew  towards  him,  and  he  said,  "  Here,  little  one, 
while  my  hand  is  still  warm !  "  and  he  passed  his  hand  over  the  boy's 
face,  saying,  "  This  is  a  caress  from  the  King." 

And  there  he  stood,  as  though  in  a  dream,  with  his  eyes  fixed  on  the 
distant  carriage,  smiling,  with  his  pipe  in  his  hand,  in  the  centre  of  a 
group  of  curious  people,  who  were  staring  at  him.  "  He  's  one  of  the 
fourth  battalion  of  the  forty-ninth !  "  they  said.  "  He  is  a  soldier  that 
knows  the  King."  "  And  the  King  recognized  him."  "  And  he  offered 
him  his  hand."    "  He  gave  the  King  a  petition,"  said  one,  more  loudly. 

"  No,"  replied  Coretti,  whirling  round  abruptly  :  "  I  did  not  give  him 
any  petition.  There  is  something  else  that  I  would  give  him,  if  he 
were  to  ask  it  of  me." 

They  all  stared  at  him. 

And  he  said  simply,  "  My  blood." 

Amicis,  "Cuore"  (translated  by  Isabel  F.  Hapgood) 

Rule  27.  Use  the  dash  to  mark  a  sudden  change  in  tJioiight 
or  in  feeling  or  in  sentence-fo7in. 

Rule  28.  Use  a  semicolon  to  separate  parts  of  a  eompo2tnd 
sentcjice  wJien  a  heavier  mat'k  than  a  comma  is  needed,  or 
when  the  conjunction  is  omitted.  - 

Find  examples  of  their  use  in  dictation  exercises  already  studied. 


„,  .      ,  Exercise  B 

Wnte  from  memory : 

All  service  ranks  the  same  with  God  — 
With  God,  whose  puppets,  best  and  worst, 
Are  we  ;  there  is  no  last  nor  first. 

Browning,  "  Pippa  Passes  " 

Exercise  C 

Account  for  the  use  of  ever)-  mark  of  punctuation  in  this  para- 
graph, and  write  from  dictation : 

Every  violation  of  truth  is  not  only  a  sort  of  suicide  in  the  liar,  but 
is  a  stab  at  the  health  of  human  society.  On  the  most  profitable  lie  the 
course  of  events  presently  lays  a  destructive  tax ;  whilst  frankness 
invites  frankness,  puts  the  parties  on  a  convenient  footing  and  makes 


232  FIRST  JSOOK  OF  COMPOSFFION 

their  business  a  friendship.  Trust  men,  and  they  will  be  true  to  you ; 
treat  them  greatly,  and  they  will  show  themselves  great,  though  they 
make  an  exception  in  your  favor  to  all  the  rules  of  trade. 

Emerson,  "  Prudence  " 
Exercise  D 

Explain  the  punctuation,  and  write  from  memory : 

"'  The  ill-timed  truth  we  might  have  kept  — 
Who  knows  how  sharp  it  pierced  and  stung  ? 
The  word  we  had  not  sense  to  say  — 
Who  knows  how  grandly  it  had  rung  ? 

"  Our  faults  no  tenderness  should  ask, 
The  chastening  stripes  must  cleanse  them  all; 
But  for  our  blunders  —  oh,  in  shame, 
Before  the  eyes  of  heaven  we  fall." 

Edward  Rowland  Sill,  "The  Fool's  Prayer" 

Exercise  E 

Write  from  dictation : 

Beside  the  moist  clods  the  slender  flags  arise  filled  with  the  sweet- 
ness of  the  earth.  Out  of  the  darkness  under— that  darkness  which 
knows  no  day  save  when  the  ploughshare  opens  its  chinks  —  they  have 
come  to  the  Hght.  To  the  light  they  have  brought  a  color  which  will 
attract  the  sunbeams  from  now  till  harvest.  Seldom  do  we  realize  that 
the  world  is  practically  no  thicker  to  us  than  the  print  of  our  footsteps 
on  the  path.  Upon  that  surface  we  walk,  and  what  is  beneath  is  noth- 
ing to  us.  But  it  is  out  from  that  underworld,  from  the  dead  and  the 
unknown,  from  the  cold  moist  ground,  that  these  green  blades  have 
sprung.  Yonder  a  steam-plough  pants  up  the  hill,  groaning  with  its 
own  strength,  yet  all  that  might  of  wheels  and  piston  and  chains  can- 
not drag  from  the  earth  one  single  blade  like  these.  Force  cannot 
make  it ;  it  must  grow. 

Richard  Jekferies,  "Out-of-doors  in  February" 

Rule  29.    Use  a  colon  to  separate  particular  instances  or 

examples  from  a  general  statement  or  summary. 

Notice  the  use  of  the  colon  in  the  following  examples : 

After  the  first  of  July  the  yellow  flowers  begin,  matching  the  yellow 
fire-flies:  Ilawkweeds,  Loosestrifes,  Primroses  bloom,  and  the  bushy 
Wild  Indigo. 


VARIETY  233 

The  soul  is  like  a  musical  instrument :  it  is  not  enough  that  it  be 
framed  for  the  most  delicate  vibration,  but  it  must  vibrate  long  and 
often  before  the  fibres  grow  mellow  to  the  finest  waves  of  sympathy. 
Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  "The 
Procession  of  the  Flowers  " 

During  the  whole  of  February  and  March  (1863)  Grant  was  busy 
with  two  experiments  :  i.  He  tried,  by  digging  canals  and  deepening 
channels,  to  make  a  connected  passage  through  the  network  of  bayous 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  so  that  supply  ships  might  be  sent  below 
Vicksburg  without  coming  within  range  of  its  guns.  2.  He  tried  to  find 
a  passage  available  for  gunboats  through  the  labyrinth  of  bayous  to  the 
north,  so  that  with  the  aid  of  the  fleet  he  might  secure  a  foothold  for 
the  army  beyond  Haines'  Bluff,  and  thence  come  down  upon  the  rear 
of  Vicksburg.  —  John  Fiske,  "  History  of  the  United  States  " 


Exercise  F 

Write  from  dictation  the  three  examples  given  above. 

Exercise  G 

Supply  commas  where  they  are  needed  in  the  following  lines, 
and  give  the  rules  illustrated.  Why  is  a  colon  instead  of  a  comma 
used  before  the  quotation  ?  Notice  that  the  first  sentence  is  an 
excellent  example  of  a  long  but  well-unified  loose  sentence. 

Think  of  the  innumerable  boys  who  at  almost  this  very  hour  are 
going  to  school  in  every  land  ;  see  them  in  your  imagination  going 
through  the  lanes  of  quiet  villages  through  the  streets  of  noisy  towns 
along  the  shores  of  seas  and  lakes  under  burning  sun  through  fogs  in 
boats  in  the  countries  of  canals  on  horse-back  across  the  broad  prairies 
in  sleds  over  the  snow  through  valleys  and  among  hills  across  forests 
and  torrents  up  over  the  solitary  pathways  of  the  mountains  alone  by 
twos  in  groups  in  long  files  all  with  books  under  their  arms  clothed  in 
a  thousand  fashions  speaking  a  thousand  tongues  from  the  farthest 
school  of  Russia  almost  lost  amid  the  ice  to  the  farthest  school  of 
Arabia  shaded  by  palm-trees  millions'  and  millions  all  going  to  learn 
under  a  hundred  forms  the  same  thing ;  imagine  this  vast  vast  throng  of 
boys  of  a  hundred  races  this  tremendous  movement  of  which  you  make 
a  part  and  think  :  "  If  this  movement  should  cease  humanity  would  fall 
back  into  barbarism  ;  this  movement  is  the  progress  the  hope  the  glory 


234  FIRST.  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

of  the  world."  Courage  then  Httle  soldier  of  the  mighty  army.  Your 
books  are  your  arhis  your  class  is  your  company  the  battlefield  is  the 
whole  earth  and  the  victory  is  human  civilization.  Be  not  a  cowardly 
soldier  my  Enrico.  —  Amicis,  ''  Cuore  " 


Exercise  H 

Give  a  rule  for  the  use  of  each  capital  and  mark  of  punctuation  : 

"  Burn  the  fleet  and  ruin  France  ?    That  were  worse  than  fifty  Hogues! 
Sirs,  they  know  I  speak  the  truth  !    Sirs,  believe  me  there  's  a  way  ! 
Only  let  me  lead  the  line, 

Have  the  biggest  ship  to  steer, 
Get  this  '  Formidable  '  clear, 
Make  the  others  follow  mine, 

And  I  lead  them,  most  and  least,  by  a  passage  I  know  well, 
Right  to  Solidor  past  Greve, 

And  there  lay  them  safe  and  sound  ; 
And  if  one  ship  misbehave, 
—  Keel  so  much  as  grate  the  ground, 
\Vhy,  I  've  nothing  but  my  life,  —  here  's  my  head  !  "  cries  Herve  Riel. 

Bkowninc;,  "Herve  Riel" 

II.   Correct  Usage 

Exercise  I 

Never  use  where  except  to  give  some  notion  of  place,  nor  when 
except  to  give  some  notion  of  time.  It  is  absurd  to  say,  "  Mumps 
is  when  your  cheeks  are  swelled  out,"  or  "  Courage  is  when  a  per- 
son is  not  afraid,"  or  "  A  glacier  is  where  ice  has  been  forced  into 
a  narrow  valley,"  and  to  call  these  definitions.  State  in  good  sentences 
what  you  think  the  following  sentences  are  intended  to  express : 

1.  "  Inventiveness  "  is  where  a  person  is  never  at  a  loss  for  means  to 
his  end. 

2.  I  read  about  where  Hiawatha  made  a  canoe. 

3.  He  told  us  about  when  he  ran  away. 

4.  A  good  paragraph  is  where  you  divide  the  subject  matter  logically. 

5.  Paragraphing  is  when  you  make  a  new  division  of  a  composition. 

6.  A  complex  sentence  is  where  you  have  a  clause  included  in  a 
principal  statement. 


VARIETY  235 

7.  An  island  is  where  a  body  of  land  is  entirely  surrounded  by  water. 

8.  Rhyme  is  when  two  or  more  lines  of  poetry  end  with  the  same  sounds. 

9.  Definiteness  is  where  a  writer  finds  the  exact  way  of  expressing  his 
thought. 

10.  A  "jam"  in  the  river  is  when  logs  are  stuck  in  the  channel  and 
block  the  way  and  pile  up  on  each  other. 

11.  The  rotation  of  the  earth  is  when  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis. 

12.  Real  reading  is  where  you  get  the  meaning  and  the  pictures  and  the 
feelings  suggested  by  the  printed  page. 


Exercise  J 

1 .  Fill  the  blanks  below  with  the  past  participle  of  ten  commonly 
misused  verbs.    If  necessary,  supply  an  object. 

2.  Substitute  had  for  have  and  has ;  fill  the  blanks  as  before, 
and  read  aloud. 

3.  Read  as  questions,  with  have  and  has,  then  with  had ;  fill 
the  blanks  and  read  aloud. 

4.  Insert  not  or  n't  with  have  and  has,  then  with  had ;  fill  the 
blanks  and  read  aloud. 


I  have ■ . 

We  have  — 

You  have . 

You  have  - 

He  has . 

They  have 

Exercise  K 

Fill  the  blanks  below  with  the  past  form  of  ten  commonly  mis- 
used verbs.  If  necessary,  supply  an  object.  Read  aloud,  following 
the  model: 

I  caine  yesterday.  We  came  yesterday. 

You  came  yesterday.  You  came  yesterday. 

lie  cafne  yesterday.  They  came  yesterday. 

I  saw  it  yesterday.  We  saw  it  yesterday. 

You  saw  it  yesterday.  You  sazv  it  yesterday. 


He  saw  it  yesterday.  They  saw  it  yesterday. 

I  — —  yesterday.  We yesterday. 

You yesterday.  You yesterday. 

He yesterday.  They yesterday. 


2^6  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  L 

Distinguish  between  sotne  place  and  somewhere,  etc.  Make  cor- 
rections where  they  are  needed. 

1.  Some  places  are  not  well  situated  for  business  centers. 

2.  Take  it  to  some  place  where  you  can  examine  it  quietly. 

3.  I  have  never  seen  any  place  more  beautifully  clean. 

4.  There  is  no  place  like  home. 

5.  Every  place  in  the  state  lost  something. 

6.  I  find  you  ez'ery  place  I  go. 

7.  Are  you  going  any  place  this  afternoon  .'    Xo  place. 

8.  I  have  looked  for  it  ever}'  place. 

9.  I  put  that  some  place,  and  now  it  seems  to  be  no  place. 

10.  I  am  going  some  place  during  the  holidays,  but  I  don't  know  where. 

Exercise  M 

After  Ihan  or  as  some  words  are  often  omitted :  for  example, 
"  He  is  as  tall  as  /"  means  "  He  is  as  tall  as  I  am  lall" ;  "  I  like 
her  better  than  /lim  "  means  "  I  like  her  better  than  I  like  him." 
In  order  to  determine  which  form  of  the  pronoun  to  use,  complete 
the  sentence. 

1.  .She  is  stronger  than (am  strong). 

2.  We  are  not  so  wise  as . 

3.  If  you  're  not  so  happy  as ,  it  is  your  own  fault. 

4.  If  I  'm  not  so  tall  as ,  he  's  not  so  strong  as . 

5.  They  are  wiser  than . 

6.  We  thought  her  more  refined  and  courteous  than . 

7.  They  walked  farther  than ,  but  not  so  far  as did. 

8.  Vou  are  older  than ;  but  I  am  older  than  Robert  and  as  tall 

as . 

9.  Vou  are  not  so  kind  as . 

Note.  Use  so  instead  of  as  with  not. 

Exercise  N 

At  some  time  in  the  future  it  may  be  correct  to  use  like  to  intro- 
duce a  clause,  but  it  should  certainly  be  avoided  now.  Use  as  or 
as  //"followed  by  a  statement ;  like  followed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun. 


VARIETY  237 

Say  "  He  looks  like  my  little  brother  " ;  "  He  looks  as  tny  little 
brother  used  to  look"  or  "  He  looks  as  if  he  might  be  tny  little 
brother r  Tell  why  like,  as,  or  as  if  is  correctly  used  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences : 

1.  It  looks  like  rain. 

2.  It  looks  as  if  it  would  rain. 

3.  She  walks  as  her  mother  does. 

4.  She  looks  like  her  mother. 

5.  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold. 

6.  We  came  down  as  if  we  were  wolves  ready  to  devour  them. 

7.  Do  as  I  do ;  fold  your  hands  like  this. 

8.  I  ran  like  a  madman,  and  arrived  breathless  as  if  from  a  race.i 

Exercise  0 

Fill  the  blanks  with  like,  as,  or  as  if : 

1.  He  acted he  had  never  seen  anything it  before. 

2.  He  sprang  up a  jack-in-the-box. 

3.  The  kitten  looked  ashamed, she  had  overturned  the  milk. 

4.  He  followed he  were  bewitched. 

5.  If  you  act a  child,  why  should  I  treat  you you  were  a  man  .^ 

6.  The  river  looks there  had  been  heavy  rains  on  the  hills. 

7.  The  roar  at  the  dam  is thunder. 

8.  You  look  — ■ —  you  were  worn  out. 

9.  It  seems he  would  never  come. 

10.  Doesn't  it  seem the  party  had  just  begun  ? 

11.  He  does  n't  act he  felt  well. 

12.  He  dresses a  tramp,  or  at  least he  were  utterly  careless. 

13.  I  did  it  just you  told  me. 

14.  He  runs a  deer. 

15.  He  came  in he  were  afraid. 

SUGGESTED   THEME   TOPICS    FOR   CHOICE   OF  WORDS 

a.  For  Colors : 

(i)  The  Greengrocer's  Window. 

(2)  A  Sunset. 

(3)  The  Heart  of  an  Opal. 

1  Part  of  the  clause  is  omitted  here.    Supply  it. 


238  FIRST  UOOK  OF  COMFUSmON 

b.  For  Sounds : 

(i)  The  Birds  Sing. 

(2)  Sounds  at  Night. 

(3)  At  the  Station. 

c.  For  Smells : 

(i)  Grandma's  Pantry  (Cellar). 

(2)  Waiting  for  the  Second  Table. 

(3)  After  the  Rain. 

d.  For  Touch : 

(i)  When  I  Couldn't  Find  a  Match. 
(2)   Blind  Man's  Buff. 

e.  For  Movement : 

(i)  The  Passing  Crowd. 

(2)  The  Wind  among  the  Trees. 

(3)  The  Birds  Fly  Past. 

General 

(i)  Deacon  Jones  Takes  the  Collection. 

(2)  His  First  Long  Trousers. 

(3)  The  Crowd  at  a  Fire. 

(4)  The  One  I  Loved  Best  of  All. 

(5)  Overheard. 

(6)  The  Farm  Sale. 

(7)  Moving  Day. 

(8)  His  Neckties. 

(9)  An  Old  Album. 

(10)  My  Ideal  Man  (Woman). 

(11)  Comic  Valentines. 

(12)  Spoiled. 

(13)  A  Faded  Flower. 

(14)  Just  a  Tramp. 

(15)  Tramps  I  Have  Met. 


VARIETY  239 

(16)  Embarrassment. 

(17)  Driving  a  Pig. 

(18)  The  Old  Swimming  Hole. 

(19)  Politeness  and  —  Politeness. 

(20)  A  Small  Boy's  Pocket. 

(21)  Two  Clerks. 

Many  proverbs  that  are  suggestive  as  topic  sentences  may 
be  found  in  the  Standard  Dictionary,  pages  2351-2364,  and  in 
Hazlitt's  "  English  Proverbs  "  (Charles  Scribner's  Sons). 

(22)  The  bad  workman  finds  fault  with  his  tools. 

(23)  Beware  of  a  silent  dog  and  still  water. 

(24)  Idle  folks  have  the  least  leisure. 

(25)  Lazy  people  work  the  best 
When  the  sun  is  in  the  west. 

(26)  We  are  apt  to  believe  what  we  wish  for. 

(27)  It's  a  long  lane  that  knows  no  turning. 

(28)  Love  me,  love  my  dog. 

(29)  A  cat  may  look  at  a  king. 

(30)  It 's  the  early  bird  that  catches  the  worm. 


CHAPTER  VII 

COHERENCE 

Every  thought  has  threads  of  connection  with  many  other 
thoughts,  and  upon  any  one  of  these  threads  the  mind  may 
seize.  If  the  word  toiiiatocs  were  pronounced  to  a  class  of 
twenty,  and  each  member  of  the  class  let  his  mind  follow  its 
own  way  among  the  possibly  connected  thoughts,  at  the  end 
of  one  minute  probably  these  twenty  minds  would  have  ar- 
rived at  twenty  entirely  different  stopping-places.  Tomatoes 
and  cJinrcJi  are  far  apart,  but  the  path  between  them  may  have 
been  easy ;  from  tomatoes  to  cans,  goats,  initiation  into  secret 
orders,  Masonry  and  its  founding  by  King  Solomon,  Solomon's 
temple,  and  church  !  There  must,  evidently,  be  some  sort  of 
connection  between  any  successive  thoughts  ;  but  connected- 
ness as  accidental  as  that  in  the  series  given  is  hardly  wort*hy 
of  the  name.  What  a  scatter-brain  would  be  the  person  who 
habitually  thought  in  this  fashion  ! 

'  By  coherence,  or  connectedness,  in  composition  is  meant 
the  clear  expression  of  vital  connections  among  well-unified 
thoughts  or  ideas.  As  this  statement  implies,  unity  of  thought 
is  closely  related  to  coherence  in  several  ways.  TYequently 
the  lack  of  unity  is  only  apparent,  and  due  to  poorly  ex- 
pressed connections.  For  example,  thinking  how  busy  he 
was  all  Saturday  morning,  a  boy  might  say,  "  I  put  away  my 
football  suit,  sharpened  my  skates,  oiled  my  heavy  shoes, 
and  read  the  morning  paper."  He  has  mentally  supplied  the 
binding  element  among  these  apparently  separated  thoughts, 

240 


COHERENCE  24 1 

but  he  has  not  stated  it.  His  sentence  would  be  better  unified 
because  more  coherent  if  he  should  say,  '"  Putting  away  my 
football  suit,  sharpening  my  skates,  oiling  my  heavy  shoes,  and 
reading  the  morning  paper  kept  me  busy  up  to  twelve  o'clock." 
On  the  other  hand,  no  care  in  expression  could  make  a  well- 
unified  and  coherent  sentence  out  of  the  statements,  "  The 
woman  is  ill,"  "  She  is  the  mother  of  the  butcher,"  "  Meat  has 
advanced  in  price,"  because  the  relation  of  the  last  thought  to 
the  first  two  is  an  accidental,  not  a  vital  one.  To  coherent  writ-^ 
ing  and  speaking,  then,  two  things  are  necessary  :  ( i )  vital  con- 
nection in  thought,  and  (2)  clear  expression  of  that  connection. 
To  this  clear,  coherent  composition  there  are  five  principal 
aids  :  (i)  logical  arrangement,  or  order ;  (2)  wise  use  of  con- 
nectives and  words  of  reference  ;  (3)  proper  subordination  of 
the  less  important  ideas;  (4)  forms  of  sentences ;  and  (5)  avoid- 
ance of  all  blurring  ellipses.  In  this  chapter  you  will  have 
practice  that  will  help  in  securing  a  command  of  all  these  aids. 
Use  them  not  only  in  any  compositions  required,  but  in  all 
written  work  for  which  you  have  opportunity. 

A.    COHERENCE    IN   PARAGRAPHS   AND    SENTENCES 

I.  Order 

a.  Order  of  sentences.  The  order  of  details  in  a  paragraph 
of  description  has  already  been  considered  (Chapter  IV), 
though  not  with  special  reference  to  coherence.  For  good 
connectedness  not  only  must  details  of  a  description  and  all 
ideas  used  in  developing  a  topic  be  arranged  in  logical  order, 
but  the  words  in  a  sentence  must  lead  naturally  from  one  to  an- 
other, and  the  beginnings  and  endings  of  sentences  must  link 
themselves  together.  In  other  words,  not  only  the  thought  but 
the  wording  of  the  thought  must  be  carefully  ordered. 


242  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  204  —  Written 
ORDERING   THE   DETAILS    l.\   A    I'ARAGRAPII 

Arrange  in  proper  order  the  items  in  each  group.  Then 
embody  them  in  a  paragraph,  joining  the  sentences  into  a 
connected  whole. 

1.  A  good  fire  all  evening.  Big  back  log.  Fire  started  from  the  top. 
Plenty  of  kindling.  Back  log  of  green  wood.  Fire  eats  down  into  wood. 
Building  a  fire  in  this  way  requires  skill. 

2.  Father  yields  at  last.  Slippers  ready  warmed ;  easy  chair  drawn 
up.  Dislike  for  late  parties.  Mother  on  our  side.  Father  comes  home 
tired  from  work.    Waiting  all  day  for  him.    The  question  proposed. 

3.  Fascinating  story.  Paper  a  sample  copy.  End  at  most  exciting 
point.    Giles,  the  crafty  news-agent.    Subscription. 

4.  Planning  to  get  Alice  from  home.  Surprise  party.  Discovery  of 
her  birth  date.  Her  innocent  stubbornness.  Aid  from  unexpected 
source.    Alice's  surprise  and  delight. 

5.  Discovery  of  "peeper"  frogs.  Catfish's  disdain  of  liver.  Deter- 
mination to  catch  him.  Seeing  a  big  catfish.  Stealing  grasshopper  bait. 
Weight  and  length.  Caught  by  trailing  frog  on  bottom.  Excitement  of 
landing  him. 

/;.  Order  of  modifiers.  Place  adjuncts  close  to  the  words  that 
they  modify.  If  you  do  this,  the  chances  are  that  each  sen- 
tence will  be  clear  in  meaning,  even  though  it  may  be  notable 
for  nothing  else.  If  you  fail  to  do  this,  your  writing  will  be  not 
only  confusing  but  also  at  times  absurd.  After  only  a  moment's 
thought  the  sign  "  Lunches  put  up  for  travellers  in  boxes  "  is 
clear  ;  but  at  first  sight  it  is  suggestive  of  uncomfortable  quar- 
ters for  the  travellers.  Errors  of  this  kind  in  coherence  are 
usually  due  to  misplaced  adverbs,  participles,  or  clauses. 

I.  Adverb  adjuncts  —  words  and  phrases.  While  seeking 
exactness  of  meaning  through  the  position  of  the  adjunct, 
try  to  avoid  awkwardness  of  statement. 


COHERENCE  243 

EXERCISE  205  — Oral 

PLACING   ADVERBS   AND   ADVERB   PHRASES 

Decide  what  the  following  sentences,  as  they  stand,  really 
say.  Shift  the  troublesome  adverb  modifier  so  that  the  sen- 
tences express  what  the  writers  probably  meant. 

1.  She  was  looking  at  the  man  sitting  in  the  chair,  rather  curiously. 

2.  This  dress  closes  at  one  side  under  the  braided  band  .with  a  blind 
fastening. 

3.  We  had  only  eaten  a  few  mouthfuls.when  the  bell  rang. 

4.  He  neither  was  prepared  to  translate  nor  to  construe  the  passage. 

5.  The  boys  were  suspended  a  week  for  fighting  by  direction  of  the 
superintendent. 

6.  I  found  the  knife  I  lent  to  you  in  the  table  drawer. 

7.  The  runaway  was  even  glad  to  have  bread  and  water  for  supper. 

8.  He  gave  the  two  last  reasons  first. 

9.  She  read  the  poem  that  Riley  wrote  so  beautifully  that  the  audi- 
ence both  were  laughing  and  weeping  at  the  same  time. 

10.  The  farmer  told  me  the  story  while  driving  along  in  a  high, 
excited  voice. 

11.  Mary  almost  appears  well  again. 

12.  When  he  broke  down  not  only  was  he  studying  too  hard  but  also 
taking  too  little  exercise. 

13.  Janet  wrote  down  in  her  note-book  everything  he  said  with  her 
new  silver  pencil. 

14.  We  finished  the  work  we  had  planned  without  interruption. 

15.  Mr.  Jocelyn  came  from  Chicago  to  see  his  brother  who  was  shot 
by  the  robber  in  the  head. 

16.  The  freshman  class  last  year  entered  upon  the  study  of  botany 
with  some  misgivings. 


2.  Participles.    Participles  sometimes  give  trouble  because 
they  are  so  placed  that  they  seem  to  modify  the  wrong  word. 


244  FIRST  P.OOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  206  —  Oral 

rLACIXG    TARTICIPLES 

What  do  you  think  the  writer  meant  in  each  sentence  ? 
Revise,  so  as  to  bring  out  the  meaning. 

1.  The  peddler  had  many  strange  experiences  travelling  about  the 
country. 

2.  i\Iy  pony  stepped  into  a  hole  yesterday  trotting  along  on  Fourth 
Street. 

3.  The  cars  were  full  of  people  at  all  hours  after  supper,  taking  them 
to  the  park. 

4.  I  saw  in  the  shadow  of  the  woods  ghosts  and  bears  and  other 
scary  things  peeping  out  from  the  tent. 

5.  Shivering,  dripping,  crying,  they  got  the  unfortunate  girl  home 
at  last. 

6.  The  coat  was  the  hide  of  a  bear  made  up  with  the  hair  outside. 

7.  Being  made  of  Irish  lace,  Bertha  put  her  hat  away  in  its  box. 

8.  Found,  a  black  leather  pocket-book  in  a  hardware  store  containing 
ten  dollars. 

9.  The  conductor  collected  from  the  tramp,  being  angry,  double 
the  proper  fare. 

10.  Being  placed  on  the  front  page,  the  editor  makes  the  cartoon 
express  the  ideas  of  his  paper. 

11.  He  was  lying  on  a  bed  bent  double  with  pain. 

12.  Leaning  heavily  on  the  arm  of  his  son,  I  could  see  the  old  man 
plod  away  through  the  rain. 

13.  Being  very  much  interested  in  the  book,  the  morning  slipped 
away  before  I  realized  it. 

14.  When  we  returned  there  were  only  four  of  us  in  the  great  coach 
drawn  by  four  horses  seated  on  the  back  seat  under  one  umbrella. 


3.  Clauses.  The  connection  of  clauses  with  the  words  that 
they  modify  should  be  shown  by  position.  Otherwise  am- 
biguity may  result. 


COHERENCE  245 

EXERCISE  207  —  Oral 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES 

Revise  these  sentences  so  as  to  secure  good  coherence 
through  proper  positions  of  the  clauses. 

1.  Last  evening  Reverend  J.  B.  Porpoise  preached  a  sermon  on  the 
Congo  horrors,  after  which  a  resolution  was  passed  urging  the  govern- 
ment to  interfere. 

2.  After  the  ceremony  the  happy  couple  sat  down  to  the  wedding 
feast,  surrounded .  by  their  friends,  which  consisted  of  oysters,  dressed 
chicken,  celery,  coffee,  ice  cream,  and  cake. 

3.  A  litde  grayish  cloud  was  pushing  its  way  up  into  the  sky,  which 
must  have  been  smoke. 

4.  He  said  that  his  name  was  Beverly  Travers,  which  sounded  im- 
probable. 

5.  We  left  Oxford  at  four  o'clock,  which  was  the  starting  point  of 
our  trip. 

6.  One  of  the  men  was  more  excited  than  the  others,  whose  name 
was  Jem  Rodney. 

7.  I  saw  a  large  room  with  a  table  on  one  side  near  the  wall  which 
was  used  as  a  counter. 

8.  Mr.  Sinclair,  proprietor  of  the  theatre,  gave  a  performance  in  aid 
of  the  Cottage  Hospital,  which  realized  two  hundred  dollars. 

9.  She  passed  to  the  company  some  ice  cream  on  her  hand-painted 
china,  which  was  delicious. 

10.  There  is  one  village  between  Boston  and  Sanetsville  which  con- 
tains two  thousand  people. 

II.  Connectives  and  Words  of  Reference 

Even  when  the  order  of  words  and  sentences  is  logical, 
the  connection  is  generally  not  perfectly  clear  without  words 
which  look  backward  or  lead  forward  and  point  the  way. 
Though  really  adverbial  modifiers,  guiding  words  and  phrases 
are  of  great  aid  to  coherence,  indicating  to  a  reader  the  direc- 
tion he  is  expected  to  go.    Pronouns,  too,  referring  to  an 


246  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 

antecedent,  are  really  in  a  sense  connectives  when  properly 
used,  and  are  a  frequent  source  of  incoherence  when  improp- 
erly used.  The  following  exercises  in  the  use  of  pronouns 
and  connectives  should  make  you  alive  to  the  importance  of 
considering  them  in  your  own  composition.  Consider  how 
beautifully  coherence  is  gained  in  the  passage  quoted  from 
Stevenson  on  page  192. 

a.  Guiding  words.  The  guiding  words  most  frequently 
used  are  then,  after  this,  again,  finally,  next,  moreover,  in 
addition,  besides,  further. 


EXERCISE  208  — Ora/ 

USING  GUIDING  WORDS 

Is  the  sense  of  the  following  incident  clear  as  it  stands  1 
Insert  in  order  words  from  the  list  given  above.  Is  the  para- 
graph easier  to  read  }    Is  there  other  improvement } 

The  new  dog  sniffed  at  the  meat ;  he  looked  suspiciously  at 

the  men.    ,  he  turned  toward  the  meat ,  never  forgetting 

for  a  moment  those  strange  faces  watching  him.    ,  just  as  the 

men  tired  watching  him,  one  of  the  old  dogs  sprang  in  and  seized 

the  food.    What  happened no  one  could  say  with  exactness, 

but  the  intruder  slunk  away  with  a  gash  in  his  neck.    he 

seemed  to  have  lost  his  appetite  and to  have  gained  strong 

respect  for  the  new-comer. 

EXERCISE  209  -  Oral  and  Written 
ACQUIRING   SOME  GUIDING   WORDS 

Make  a  long  list  of  guiding  words,  referring  to  some  novel 
or  other  well- written  book  for  help.  In  class  select  twenty 
of  those  most  helpful  and  most  frequently  used. 


COHERENCE  247 

EXERCISE  210 -Written 

USING  GUIDING  WORDS 

Write  one  or  two  long  paragraphs,  using  all  of  the  twenty 
connectives.  The  subject-matter  here  need  not  be  original, 
though  it  should  be  as  unified  as  possible  in  such  an  exercise. 
Be  careful  to  make  the  connection  good. 


By  repeating  in  the  beginning  of  a  new  sentence  or  para- 
graph some  word  that  has  occurred  near  the  end  of  the  pre- 
ceding, one  may  aid  the  effect  of  coherence.  This  he  may 
do,  also,  by  using  a  contrasting  word  or  by  summarizing  the 
preceding  thought  by  words  like  t/irsr,  s?u'/i,  and  t/ie  latter. 
Find  in  some  magazine  or  novel  illustrations  of  connectedness 
gained  by  these  means. 

This  is  such  an  easy  way  of  tolling  a  reader  along  that  a 
writer  must  be  careful  to  observe  first  of  all  his  basic  prin- 
ciple of  unity.  Otherwise  he  might  wander  along  somewhat 
in  this  manner  : 

After  we  had  endured  the  stuffy  cars  seemingly  for  hours,  the 
train  rolled  up  to  the  station.  This  was  a  neat  little  box  of  a  build- 
ing set  in  the  midst  of  a  broad  plot  of  grass.  In  the  plot,  too,  were 
beds  of  flowers  wilting  in  the  hot  sun.  Rain,  it  was  evident,  was 
badly  needed ;  and,  as  a  substitute,  water  was  being  sprinkled  on 
the  flowers  by  a  man  in  uniform.  This  was  all  white  and  reminded 
me,  except  for  the  cap,  of  those  worn  by  bakers.  Hunger  now 
assailed  us,  and  we  began  to  look  for  a  restaurant. 

This  runs  along  so  as  to  give  an  impression  of  better  unity 
than  it  really  has,  solely  because  the  author  has  used  words 
of  repetition,  contrast,  and  summary  to  bind  the  sentences 
together. 


248  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  211— Written 
REVISING   TIIKMKS   FOR   GUIDING   WORDS 

These  exercises  are  intended  to  make  you  acquainted  with 
this  trick  of  connection.  Select  one  of  your  old  themes  and 
revise  it  with  these  devices  in  mind.  Apply  them  repeatedly 
in  your  writing  until  you  have  acquired  the  habit  of  using 
them  ;  but  always  be  careful  of  the  unity  of  the  passage,  and 
seek,  too,  to  gain  connectedness  in  a  variety  of  other  ways. 

d.  Pronouns.  Carefully  used,  pronouns  will  help  bind  sen- 
tences together ;  otherwise,  they  will  surely  interfere  with 
the  reader's  ready  grasp  of  the  thought,  and  hence  prevent 
an  impression  of  connectedness. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  a  pronoun  without  a  clearly 
understood  antecedent  is  meaningless.  If  any  one  should 
attempt  to  begin  a  conversation  with  /ic  or  s//e,  his  hearer 
would  be  at  a  loss  until  the  speaker  mentioned  the  person 
whom  the  pronoun  represented. 

Practiced  writers  are  not  likely  to  begin  a  paragraph  in  such 
a  mystifying  manner  ;  but  the  inexperienced  frequently  use  a 
pronoun  with  no  antecedent  clearly  expressed,  leaving  the 
reader  to  guess  from  the  sense  of  the  passage  who  or  what 
is  meant.  The  boy  who  wrote  '"  The  Civil  War  settled  slavery 
by  freeing  t/iem  "  was  thinking  of  course  of  slaves  ;  but,  as 
he  had  not  mentioned  them,  he  causes  his  reader  to  pause 
for  a  moment  to  supply  the  connection  that  he  should  have 
made  clear. 

In  this  particular  instance  it  is  not  hard  to  understand  the 
writer  ;  the  pause  resulting  from  his  careless  writing  is  only 
momentary.  But  frequently  the  same  fault  will  cause  real  un- 
certainty of  meaning.  "We  had  a  late  breakfast,  which ." 


COHERENCE  249 

One  would  suppose  the  writer  was  intending  to  say  something 
further  about  breakfast ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  he  con- 
tinued, "which  made  me  hurry  to  get  to  school."  What  in 
the  writer's  mind  was  the  antecedent  of  ivhich  ? 


EXERCISE  212  — Oral 

EXPRESSING   CLEAR   ANTECEDENTS   FOR   PRONOUNS 

Decide  as  well  as  you  can  what  the  writer  meant  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences.  Then  reconstruct  them  so  as  to 
bring  out  the  meaning. 

1.  After  sealing  the  envelope  Laura  told  me  that  it  was  very  important. 

2.  In  a  week  he  was  feeling  unwell,  and  this  rapidly  grew  on  him. 

3.  After   he  despaired  of    recovery,   the  invalid   told    me   that  he 
probably  contracted  it  from  the  public  drinking  cup  on  the  train. 

4.  General  Jackson  bore  the  attack  without  dismay,  at  which  the 
commander  dubbed  him  "  Stonewall  Jackson." 

5.  My  uncle  used  to  mystify  us  with  cards  and  dominoes.    He  used 
to  say  that  he  learned  all  these  from  the  Chinese. 

6.  The  tramp's  hat  had  a  hole  in  it,  which  made  us  think  he  was 
the  victim  of  our  random  shot. 

7.  At  first  we  did  not  like  cowboy  life ;  but  after  a  while  we  learned 
to  admire  them,  and  then  it  was  more  pleasant. 

8.  Catfish  are  hard  to  kill,  but  it  is  no  sign  that  they  are  akin  to  cats. 

9.  Our  neighbor's  little  girl  could  sing  before  she  was  three  years 
old ;  but  usually  they  are  older  before  they  can  carry  a  tune. 

10.  Having  no  hair-ribbon,  she  let  it  hang  loose  down  her  back. 

11.  It  is  great  fun  to  use  a  camera,  but  it  is  also  expensive,  unless 
you  develop  them  yourself. 

12.  They  say  that  a  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

13.  In  the  summer  I  tried  to  get  a  job,  but  they  are  scarce. 

14.  The  orator  was  applauded,  which  made  him  think  we  all  approved 
of  what  he  said. 

15.  At  Polk's  election  Texas  entered  the  Union,  which  Tyler  signed 
as  one  of  his  last  acts  as  President. 


2  50  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFl'ION 

16.  After  picking  off  all  the  feathers,  we  roasted  it  over  the  fire. 

17.  At  any  rate,  those  were  not  the  boots  I  ordered,  and  as  they  had 
done  this  same  thing  before,  I  returned  them,  and  then  they  sent  them 
back  to  me,  enclosing  the  bill,  too. 


Not  only  must  pronouns  have  antecedents  clearly  expressed 
but  they  must  refer  definitely  to  these  antecedents.  If  several 
substantives  precede  the  pronoun,  it  is  necessary  for  a  writer 
to  take  great  care  that  his  meaning  be  clear.    "  John  told  his 

father  that  he  " .  Who?   If  a  statement  is  worth  making 

it  is  worth  making  in  such  a  form  that  there  is  no  doubt  of 
its  meaning.  Often  the  doubt  may  be  cleared  by  a  simple 
change  in  order. 

EXERCISE  213  — Oral 
AVOIDING   AMBIGUITY    IN   THE    USE   OF   PRONOUNS 

Which  is  the  best  of  the  possible  meanings  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences  ?  Revise  each  sentence  so  as  to  make  it  mean 
clearly  one  thing.    In  some  cases  use  direct  quotation. 

1.  After  the  gang  plow  went  over  the  field,  it  seemed  to  be  worth 
the  price. 

2.  There  is  a  bridge  over  the  river,  which  is  made  of  concrete. 

3.  The  teacher  took  a  paper  from  the  boy  that  contained  a  detective 
story. 

4.  The  other  boys  took  the  oars  out  of  the  boats  and  brought  them 
into  camp. 

5.  The  girl  asked  her  mother  if  she  had  ever  been  in  New  York. 

6.  He  built  himself  a  concrete  house,  which,  some  think,  is  the  best 
material  for  permanency. 

7.  The  examiners  told  the  boys  that  they  should  be  ready  at  nine 
o'clock. 

8.  The  note  was  written  by  candle  light,  but  it  is  all  right  for  a  camp. 

9.  The  teacher  reminded  the  young  man  that  he  had  been  prepared 
when  he  called  to  present  his  case. 


COHERENCE  251 

10.  I  got  the  apple  from  the  bin,  which  I  ate. 

11.  There  was  a  trunk  in  the  attic,  which  we  thought  most  interesting. 

12.  Lucy  saw  as  much  of  Jane  as  she  did  of  her. 

13.  When  I  bought  the  paper  at  the  news  store  last  week  I  saw  that 
it  was  better  than  we  had  in  town  before. 

14.  When  the  culprit  was  taken  before  the  superintendent  he  looked 
at  him  in  surprise. 

15.  In  botany  the  specimens  are  collected  by  the  class  and  they  are 
then  mounted  for  use. 

16.  The  snow  drifted  ten  feet  deep  over  a  part  of  the  road,  so  that  it 
could  not  be  crossed. 

17.  George's  father  died  before  he  could  remember. 


You  have  noticed  that  incoherence  through  pronouns  is 
due  not  to  their  number  so  mucli  as  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  parts  of  the  sentence.  Not  infrequently  the  same  pronoun 
is  used  over  and  over  in  a  passage,  and  if  its  meaning  is  per- 
fectly clear,  it  helps  rather  than  hinders  the  impression  of 
connectedness. 

Billy  Woods  stopped  short  before  reaching  the  gate,  and  opened 
his  mouth.  First  a  look  of  childish  dread  came  over  his  face.  He 
looked  at  Munson.  Then  he  looked  around  at  the  staff.  Then  he 
turned  his  face  away  and  sat  down  at  the  nearest  desk.  Being  a 
born  reporter,  he  had  grasped  the  whole  situation  from  beginning 
to  end.  —  Adapted  from  Williams,  "  The  Stolen  Story  " 

EXERCISE  2U— Written 
USING   PRONOUNS   TO   AID   COHERENCE 

a.  Make  a  list  of  words  that  will  represent  without  naming : 
(i)  a  man,  (2)  a  woman,  (3)  a  book,  (4)  your  classmates, 
(5)  your  studies. 

d.  Write  a  paragraph  about  any  of  these  topics,  using  all, 
if  you  can,  of  the  words  listed  under  one  number.  Make 
these  words  bind  the  sentences  into  a  connected  paragraph. 


252  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFFION 

EXERCISE  215 -Oral 

ORGANIZIXO    A    RECITATION 

Organize  for  presentation  to  the  class  some  topical  recita- 
tion that  you  have  recently  made,  or  are  soon  to  make,  in 
history  or  some  other  school  subject.  Work  both  in  your 
organization  and  in  your  oral  recitation  to  secure  unity  and 
coherence. 

EXERCISE  216-  Written 
TEST   THEME 

Write  a  character  sketch  of  some  one  you  know,  giving 
only  so  much  personal  description  as  helps  to  make  the 
character  clear.  Do  not  make  this  sketch  a  story,  but  illustrate 
your  points  by  telling  incidents  which  bring  out  the  traits  of 
character.  Choose  a  subject  of  great  individuality,  but  make 
your  sketch  a  portrait,  not  a  caricature.  This  does  not  mean, 
however,  that  you  are  to  avoid  humor.  First  be  sure  that  you 
understand  your  subject,  and  then  sincerely  try  to  make  the 
fellow  members  of  your  class  know  him.  Be  careful  to  intro- 
duce variety  into  your  sentence  structure,  and  to  connect  )-our 
statements  well  by  all  the  means  you  have  been  practicing. 


r.  Conjunctions.  As  has  been  saifi.  thinking  proceeds  with 
regular  steps,  each  thought  being  joined  by  some  close  con- 
nection to  that  which  goes  before.  The  thinker  can  tell,  if 
questioned,  whether  his  thought  concerns  the  result  or  the 
cause  of  what  precedes  or  is  a  mere  addition  to  it ;  but  in 
expression  he  frequently  fails  to  show  this.  There  should  be 
an  impression  of  coherence,  and  this  is  made  frequently  by 
the  connectives  which  we  call  conjunctions. 


COHERENCE  253 

In  the  chapters  on  Unity  and  Variety  you  have  already 
had  some  practice  with  conjunctions.  You  have  found  that 
they  are  divided  into  two  large  classes  :  (i)  co-ordinate,  join- 
ing elements  of  equal  rank;  and  (2)  ^abQr4ifiate,  joining  a 
dependent  element  to  one  of  more  importance. 

I.  Co-ordinate  conjunctions.  The  co-ordinate  conjunctions 
you  have  found,  furthermore,  are  divided  according  to  the 
meaning  of  the  relations  into  four  classes  :  {a)  copulative, 
(/;)  alternative,  {c)  adversative,  and  {d)  illative. ^  These  rela- 
tions are  sometimes  shown  by  words  which  are  not  grammat- 
ically conjunctions.  See  if  you  can  add  to  the  following  lists 
of  conjunctive  words  or  phrases  : 
(a)    Copulative : 


not  only  .  .  .  but  also  - 

in  addition 

as  well  as 

further 

in  like  manner 

thereupon 

likewise 

also 

both  .  .  .  and^ 

thereafter 

besides 

and 

furthermore 

moreover 

again 

too 

to  proceed 

similarly 

EXERCISE  211  — Oral  and  Written 

FINDING   AND    USING   COPULATIVE   CONNECTIVES 

Which  are  the  most  common  of  these  connectives  1  Test 
in  several  pages  of  your  reading.  Write  enough  sentences 
to  use  each  of  these  connectives  at  least  once.  Keep  your 
sentences  as  nearly  as  possible  about  one  thing. 


{b)  Alternative  : 

neither  .  . 

.  nor- 

either  .  . 

.  or  2 

nor 

otherwise 

or  else 

or 

1  See  pages  213,  214. 

2  Each  of  any  pair  of  correlative  conjunctions  should  usually  be  followed  by 
identically  the  same  construction  as  the  other. 


254  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFFION 

EXERCISE  21S- Written 
USING   ALTERNATIVE   CONNECTIVES 

Write  four  topic  sentences  that  contrast  two  things,  one 
of  which  you  must  choose  ;  for  instance, "'  National  revenues 
may  be  raised  by  direct  or  by  indirect  taxation."  Select  one 
of  these  and  develop  a  unified  paragraph,  using  in  it  at  least 
the  last  four  alternative  connectives. 


(c)  Adversative: 

on  the  other  hand 

in  spite  of 

however 

still 

at  the  same  time 

nevertheless 

whereas 

but 

notwithstanding 

for  all  that 

only 

yet 

on  the  contrary 

EXERCISE  219  —  Oral  and  Written 
USING  ADVERSATIVE   CONNECTIVES 

How  many  of  these  adversative  connectives  can  also  be 
combined  with  but,  yet,  and  sti/l  (as,  stiV/,  at  tJic  same  time)} 
Write  enough  sentences  to  use  each  of  the  connectives  at 
least  once.  Make  the  contrast  of  thought  worth  contrasting 
in  expression. 

{(.i)  Illative: 

in  consequence         accordingly         therefore  thence 

consequently  as  a  result  and  so  hence 

EXERCISE  220  —  Oral  and  Written 

USING    ILLATIVE   CONNECTIVES 

\M-iich  of  the  illative  connectives  can  you  insert  in  the 
following  blanks }  Use  the  best  ones.  Write  another  well- 
unified  paragraph,  using  the  others. 


COHERENCE  255 

Sindbad  soon  grew  tired  of  living  an  idle  life ; he  embarked 

with  some  merchants  on  another  long  voyage.  After  touching  at 
several  ports,  the  ship  was  overtaken  by  a  dreadful  tempest  and 
was  rendered  almost  helpless ; it  had  to  make  harbor  for  re- 
pairs. With  difficulty  the  crew  brought  the  vessel  to  an  island,  the 
shores  of  which  fairly  swarmed  with  dwarf  savages.  These  hairy 
wild  men  danced  about  on  shore,   brandishing   their   knives  and 

shooting  their  poisoned  arrows  at  the  ship. Sindbad  and  his 

fellows  had  no  desire  to  land. 


EXERCISE  221  — Oral 
USING   THE   FOUR   TYPES   OF  CONNECTIVES 

Decide  whether  the  second  sentence  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing groups  expresses  a  thought  copulative,  alternative, 
adversative,  or  illative  to  that  in  the  first.  Revise  so  as 
to  express  the  proper  relation.  Wherever  it  seems  best, 
make  one  sentence  of  the  two.  Use  a  variety  of  connectives. 
Review  Rule  25,  page  172. 

1.  The  boys  had  mumps.    They  did  not  go  to  school. 

2.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  came  to  America  in  the  steerage.  He 
crossed  the  plains  in  an  immigrant  train. 

3.  Stevenson  went  to  California  in  search  of  health.  Not  finding  it 
there,  he  sailed  for  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

4.  In  this  far-away  part  of  the  world  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life.    He  kept  in  touch  with  his  old  friends  through  charming  letters. 

5.  One  would  think  that  a  man  so  much  confined  to  his  bed  would 
have  small  strength  for  writing.  Stevenson  during  these  years  of  illness 
did  much  of  his  best  work. 

6.  Lee  might  have  pressed  on  into  hostile  country.  He  might  have 
returned  into  Virginia. 

7.  The  army  had  no  adequate  food  supply.    It  retraced  its  course. 

8.  Dickens  offended  many  Americans  by  his  comments  on  this 
country.  On  his  return  some  years  later  to  lecture  he  was  greeted  by 
appreciative  audiences. 


256  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

9.  He  was  a  great  novelist.    He  was  a  most  entertaining  reader  of 
his  own  stories. 

10.  Sherlock  Holmes  observed  that  his  friend  was  poorly  shaved  on 
the  left  side.    He  concluded  that  the  light  had  been  on  the  right. 

11.  At  first  his  conclusions  seem  supernatural.  When  he  explains 
how  he  reached  them,  they  are  reasonable  enough. 

12.  A  detective  must  reason  from  evidence  to  find  the  criminal.  A 
scholar  must  use  evidence  to  arrive  at  a  conclusion. 

13.  The  magician  laid  all  the  coins  on  the  marble  top  of  a  table.  We 
selected  one. 

14.  Those  on  the  table  soon  became  cold,  while  the  one  we  chose 
w^as  warmed  by  our  hands.  He  had  little  trouble  in  picking  out  from 
the  hat  the  penny  that  we  had  selected. 

15.  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man.  It  is  wise  to  form  habits  of 
promptness. 

16.  You  must  be  at  the  station  in  time  to  check  your  trunk.  You 
may  go  without  it. 

17.  The  boys  were  warned  to  keep  out  of  the  field.  They  marched 
boldly  across  it. 

18.  The  early  bird  gets  the  worm,  it  is  said.  Why  did  the  worm  get 
up  so  early  ? 

19.  He  frequently  used  in  his  talk  proverbs  and  quotations.  Gener- 
ally he  twisted  them  out  of  their  usual  sense. 

20.  The  thought  in  one's  mind  may  be  clear  and  coherent.  Unless 
conjunctive  elements  bind  the  details  together,  it  may  be  incoherent  in 
impression. 

2.  Subordinate  conjunctions.  Subordinate  conjunctions  in- 
troduce adverb  clauses  expressing  (i)  place,  (2)  time,  (3)  man- 
ner, (4)  cause,  (5)  purpose,  (6)  condition,  and  (7)  concession. ^ 
Following  is  a  list  of  the  most  common  subordinate  conjunc- 
tive words  and  phrases  : 

1.  Place  :  where,  whence,  whither. 

2.  Time :  when,  whenever,  after,  before,  till,  until,  since. 

3.  Manner :  as. 

4.  Cause  :  because,  as,  since,  for,  inasmuch  as,  in  that,  seeing  that. 

'  See  chapter  on  Variety,  page  206,  for  illustrations. 


COHERENCE  257 

5.  Purpose :  that,  lest,  so  that. 

6.  Condition  :  if,  unless,  except,  but  that,  providing.  (This  relation  is 
often  shown  simply  by  placing  the  verb  before  the  subject  in  the  clause.) 

7.  Concession  :  although,  though. 

Some  of  these  relations,  as  you  have  already  seen,  may  be 
expressed  by  other  means.    What  are  they .'' 

EXERCISE  122  — Oral 
EXPRESSING   SUBORDINATE   IDEAS 
Complete  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Our  plans  were  defective  in  that . 

2.  Lee  Overstreet,  who  is  an  old  college  player,  promised  to  help 
us,  providing . 

3.  He  has  been  working  for  the  express  company  since . 

4.  Though .  he  remained  at  his  post. 

5.  Wherever ,  we  saw  advertisements  of  American  goods. 

6.  Inasmuch  as ,  we  were  heartily  chagrined. 

7.  The  bull  dog  held  on  until . 

8.  Since ,  he  refused  to  take  a  refusal. 

9.  Lest ,  you  must  make  complete  preparations. 

10.  The  door  slammed  as  . 

11.  She  would  turn  back  and  give  up  her  errand  whenever . 

12.  Sherlock  Holmes  knew  so  many  details  that . 

13.  As ,  no  one  could  read  his  letters. 

14.  As ,  so  the  tree  must  lie. 

EXERCISE  223  — Oro/ 
PRACTICE   IN   SUBORDINATION 

Decide  which  of  the  following  statements  to  subordinate ; 
then  combine  the  elements  into  unified  sentences,  showing 
the  thought  relation  by  the  insertion  of  proper  connectives. 

1.  The  night  was  pitch  black.    Father  carried  a  lantern. 

2.  The  sun  set  into  a  bank  of  angry  clouds.    We  sat  and  watched 
the  night  close  in  upon  us. 


258  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

3.  The  thief  returned  the  stolen  goods  and  promised  to  lead  a  better 
life.    The  state's  attorney  had  him  bound  over  to  court. 

4.  Benjamin  Franklin  made  many  experiments  with  electricity.    lie 
wished,  among  other  things,  to  identify  electricity  and  lightning. 

5.  The  lion's  roar  shook  the  hills.    Thunder  shakes  the  hills. 

6.  Wilkins  bought  the  old  brick  mansion.    He  was  born  there  years 
before. 

7.  a  young  man  enters  the  army,  he  must  serve  three  years. 

8. the  penalty  of  failure  was  severe.    Bassanio  boldly  chose  the 

lead  casket. 

9.  Antonio  borrowed  the  money he  might  lend  it  to  Bassanio. 

10.  Portia  hurried  back  to  Belmont, Jessica  and  Lorenzo  were 

awaiting  her. 

11.  the  pony  had  thrown  him  once,  Carl  was  afraid  to  ride 

again. 

12.  Robin  Hood  was  an  outlaw.    He  had  to  live  in  Sherwood  Forest. 

13.  He  was  strong  arjd  skilful.    Sometimes  he  was  defeated. 

14.  George  fed  his  pets  so  much they  all  became  surfeited. 

15.  Laura  fed  the  chickens  regularly.    They  did  not  lay  an  egg  all 
winter. 

16.  Holmes's  "  Old  Ironsides  "'  appeared,  the  ship  was  saved. 

17.  The  boxer's  eye  is  quick.    It  notices  the  slightest  motion  of  the 
opponent. 

18.  Electrocution  is  more  humane  than  hanging.    It  has  been  legally 
adopted  in  many  states. 

19.  The  girls  were  late, they  had  been  called  in  plenty  of  time. 

20.  the  train  was  running  on  schedule,  the  conductor  would 

not  wait. 

21.  Fashions  often  decree  ridiculous  things.     Some  people  always 
wear  them. 

22.  Consumptives  are  now  advised  to  sleep  out  of  doors.     They 
there  can  get  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

23.  Public  drinking  cups  are  dangers  to  health, they  transmit 

disease  germs. 

24.  Indians  lived  largely  in  the  open  air.    They  seldom  had  diseases 
of  the  lungs. 


COHERENCE  259 

EXERCISE  224  — OraZ 

SUBORDINATING   DETAILS 

Consider  with  care  the  relations  of  the  details  in  the  fol- 
lowing groups.  Combine  the  details  so  as  to  make  one  good, 
effective  sentence  of  each  group.  If  the  results  of  mem- 
bers of  the  class  differ,  see  that  the  cause  lies  in  different 
understandings  of  the  meaning. 

1.  The  man  was  in  a  hurry.  He  did  not  see  the  wire.  He  fell 
sprawling. 

2.  Stanley  worked  on  a  newspaper.  He  felt  his  importance.  One 
day  he  had  an  experience.    It  humbled  his  pride. 

3.  Father  wished  to  get  some  exercise.  He  tried  punching  the  bag. 
He  did  not  like  it. 

4.  We  boys  offered  to  teach  him  to  skate.  He  reflected  that  the  ice 
was  hard,  besides  being  nearly  six  feet  from  his  head.  He  declined  our 
offer. 

5.  I  chose  the  best  seeds.  These  I  sowed  in  rich  soil.  I  cultivated 
the  plants  every  week  until  the  crop  was  "  laid  by."  I  had  the  best  corn 
at  the  exhibit. 

6.  Sergeant  O'Keefe  saw  a  glint  of  money  in  the  tramp's  hand.  He 
arrested  the  tramp.    He  got  the  long-sought  hold-up  man. 

EXERCISE  225  —  Oral 
VARYING   METHODS    OF   SUBORDINATION 

You  will  recall  (pages  204-207)  that  instead  of  subordinate 
clauses,  sometimes  participles,  infinitives,  and  nominative  ab- 
solute constructions  are  used  to  express  dependent  ideas. 

Review  the  two  preceding  exercises  and  see  where  these 
three  kinds  of  phrases  —  participial,  infinitive,  and  nominative 
absolute  —  can  effectively  be  substituted  for  clauses. 


26o  FIRST  r.OOK  (3F  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  226  —  Oral 

SHOWING   CONNECTION    BY    SUBORDINATION 

Combine  the  sentences  in  each  group  in  as  man}'  sensible 
ways  as  you  can.  Show  in  what  connection  one  of  the  ways 
would  be  preferable. 

1.  Jack  played  third  base  in  the  last  game.  The  game  was  on  Sat- 
urday.   Our  team  did  not  win. 

2.  The  lover  hesitated  just  a  moment.  He  walked  quickly  to  the 
right-hand  door  and  opened  it.  Every  heart  stopped  beating  while  he 
did  this.  The  story  docs  not  tell  us  whether  the  Lady  or  the  tiger  came 
out. 

3.  Tom  Sawyer  did  many  amusing  things.  I  have  always  envied  him 
one  of  them.    This  was  hearing  his  own  funeral  sermon. 

4.  We  planned  to  entertain  the  seniors  at  a  party.  The  juniors  knew 
this.    They  got  ahead  of  us. 

5.  Protective  coloring  is  marked  in  many  animals.  When  in  their 
natural  haunts  they  are  hard  to  see.    The  chipmunk  is  a  good  example. 

6.  Tom  reached  school  ahead  of  time.  This  was  unusual.  He  had  a 
plan. 

EXERCISE  227  — Oro/ 
DISTINGUISHING    PRINCIPAL  AND   SUBORDINATK    IDEAS 

Decide  which  sentences  contain  the  principal  ideas  in  each 
group;  then  make  them  the  bases  of  your  new  sentences. 
The  other  sentences  must  be  subordinated  by  being  reduced 
to  clauses  or  phrases.  If  you  find  in  any  group  ideas  of  ecjual 
rank,  you  must,  of  course,  combine  them  by  one  of  the  four 
types  of  co-ordinate  conjunctions. 

1.  Canada  is  and  has  long  been  a  British  possession.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  of  the  same  stock  as  we.  Across  the  line  we  find  a  difference 
in  traditions  and  a  marked  difference  in  attitude  toward  England. 

2.  Mother  asked  me  to  do  some  shopping  for  her.  Matching  ribbons 
was  never  entertaining  to  me.  I  wanted  to  get  permission  to  sec  the  circus 
unload.    I  went  off  down  the  street  with  apparent  willingness. 


COHERENCE  261 

3.  We  were  late.  We  ran  the  last  three  blocks.  The  train  was  late. 
This  was  usual.    We  had  plenty  of  time  to  rest. 

4.  There  are  styles  in  dress.  There  are  also  styles  in  spelling.  An 
example  is  the  spelling  of  lienor.  Once  it  was  spelled  h-o-n-o-u-r. 
Some  day  it  may  be  spelled  o-n-o-r. 

5.  Caesar  did  not  wish  to  seem  afraid.  He  had  been  warned  not  to 
go  to  the  senate  house.  Calpurnia  was  his  wife.  She  begged  him  to 
remain  at  home.    He  went.    He  was  killed. 

6.  There  are  many  kinds  of  stoves  and  furnaces.  In  all  of  them  the 
principle  is  the  same.  Air  contains  oxygen.  This  is  necessary  to  fire. 
It  is  supplied  below  the  fuel. 

7.  The  "  Merchant  of  Venice  "  was  to  be  presented.  The  perform- 
ance was  to  be  a  matinee.  Our  principal  dismissed  school  at  noon.  We 
could  attend  the  play. 

EXERCISE  228  —  Written 
USING  SUBORDINATION    EFFECTIVELY    IN   A    PARAGRAPH 

The  sentences  in  the  following  paragraph  are  not  only 
monotonous  in  form,  but,  being  all  co-ordinate,  they  cannot 
express  the  relations  in  the  writer's  mind.  Decide  what  are 
the  chief  points  in  the  paragraph  and  what  are  the  relations 
of  the  details  ;  then  rewrite  the  paragraph,  trying  by  all  the 
means  at  your  command  to  connect  the  details  so  as  to  show 
their  relative  values. 

Now  night  had  drooped  slowly  upon  the  wide  watery  levels  in 
front.  At  no  great  distance  from  the  men  in  the  boat  the  shore  line 
curved  round.  It  formed  a  long  ribbon  of  shade  upon  the  horizon. 
There  a  series  of  points  of  yellow  light  began  to  start  into  exist- 
ence. They  denoted  the  spot  to  be  the  site  of  Budmouth.  There 
the  lamps  were  being  lighted  along  the  parade.  The  cluck  of  their 
oars  was  the  only  sound  of  any  distinctness  upon  the  sea.  They 
labored  amid  the  thickening  shades.  The  lamplights  grew  larger. 
Each  appeared  to  send  a  flickering  sword  far  down  into  the  waves 
before  it.  Finally  there  arose,  among  other  dim  shapes  of  the 
kind,  the  form  of  the  vessel.    They  were  bound  for  it. 


262  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

III.  Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences 

As  has  been  seen,  it  is  tolerably  easy  to  hold  a  reader's 
attention  by  the  use  of  close  connectives ;  but  because  this 
is  so,  some  writers  are  inclined  to  string  out  a  sentence  until 
all  unity  of  impression  is  lost.  Every  item  may  be  clear ;  its 
relation  to  what  precedes  and  to  what  follows  may  be  unmis- 
takable ;  but  all  the  items  together  do  not  impress  one  larger 
idea.  Such  sentences  are  almost  always  in  effect  loose.  This 
does  not  imply  that  loose  sentences  should  be  avoided,  for  in 
the  chapter  on  Variety  it  was  shown  that  they  are  important 
and  effective  ;  but  it  does  mean  that  loose  sentences  should 
be  used  with  care,  lest  both  unity  and  coherence  be  lost, 

EXERCISE  229  —  Written 

SECURING  UNITY  AND  COHERENCE    THROUGH    PERIODIC 
SENTENCES 

Revise  these  stringy  sentences  so  as  to  gain,  through 
unity  and  coherence,  good  effects.  Make  as  many  sentences 
of  each  as  unity  requires. 

1.  Those  that  loved  truth  got  out,  fought  for  her,  and  did  not  only 
dream  of  things  that  they  would  like  to  do,  but  dared  and  so  did  them, 
and  in  the  end  or  in  death  saw  her  sweet  stern  face,  but  in  the  mean- 
while others  would  like  to  have  seen  her,  but  they  did  not  try  to  find 
her,  but  only  sat  with  crossed  hands  and  sighed  for  her,  their  belief 
therefore  not  being  strong  enough  to  help  them  search  for  her  like 
others. 

2.  The  little  one,  rising  on  its  legs,  toddled  through  the  snow,  the 
old  grimy  shawl  in  w-hich  it  was  wrapped  trailing  behind  it,  and  the 
queer  little  bonnet  dangling  at  its  back  —  toddled  on  to  the  open  door 
of  Silas  Marner's  cottage,  and  right  up  to  the  warm  hearth,  where  there 
was  a  bright  fire  of  logs  and  sticks,  which  had  thoroughly  warmed  the 
old  sack  (Silas's  greatcoat)  spread  out  on  the  bricks  to  dry. 


COHERENCE  263 

3.  When  the  time  of  maturity  in  the  chrysalis  state  has  been  reached, 
the  coverings  part  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  perfect 
insect,  which,  as  it  comes  forth,  generally  carries  with  it  some  sugges- 
tion of  its  caterpillar  state  in  the  lengthened  abdomen,  which  it  with 
apparent  difficulty  trails  after  it  until  it  secures  a  hold  upon  some  object 
from  which  it  may  depend  while  a  process  of  development  (which  gen- 
erally lasts  a  few  hours)  takes  place  preparatory  to  flight. 


IV.  Parallel  Construction 

It  is  easier  for  our  minds,  as  for  our  bodies,  to  repeat  an 
activity  than  to  undertake  a  new  one.  Indeed,  we  are  told 
that,  after  doing  something  once  with  satisfaction,  we  incHne 
to  do  it  again.  For  this  reason  we  incHne,  on  the  side  of  ex- 
pression, to  use  the  same  form  of  sentence  or  modifier  again 
and  again  ;  and,  on  the  side  of  impression,  we  expect  the 
repetition  of  a  form.  When  this  is  continued  too  long  it  be- 
comes, of  course,  monotonous  and  tiring.  But  when  we  have 
a  repetition  of  similar  thoughts  or  modifiers,  there  is,  within 
limits,  a  gain  in  coherence  through  a  repetition  of  the  form 
too.  Shylock  might  have  said,  for  instance  :  "  Hath  not  a 
Jew  eyes  ?  A  Jew  hath  hands,  organs,  dimensions,  senses, 
affections,  passions."  But  the  coherence  of  the  passage  is 
improved  greatly  by  the  repetition  of  the  interrogative  form 
of  sentence. 

This  principle  of  parallel  structure  is  often  treated  for  other 
ends.  In  this  chapter  the  emphasis  on  parallel  structure  is 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  connectedness.  The  coherence  of 
a  passage  is  materially  aided  if  ideas  'similar  in  thought  are 
made  similar  in  form.  This  applies  especially  to  the  form  of 
the  sentence  —  declarative,  interrogative,  and  imperative  ;  the 
form  of  the  modifiers  —  clause,  phrase,  and  word  ;  and  the 
voice,  mood,  and  tense  of  verbs. 


264  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMFOSFHOxN 

EXERCISE  230  —  Oral  or  Written 
SECURING  COIIKRENCE  THROUGH  PARALLEL  FORM 

Improve  the  connectedness  of  the  following  sentences 
by  making  parallel  in  form  everything  that  is  parallel  in 
thought : 

1.  Paul  sat  up  in  bed  and  listened.  The  muffled  sound  is  repeated, 
nearer  this  time. 

2.  "  Oh,-'  he  thought,  "  if  my  father  were  only  here  or  if  I  was  a 
man."' 

3.  The  letter  finally  was  written  and  Florence  blotted  the  last  page 
contentedly. 

4.  My  little  brother  was  very  happy  ov'er  his  presents.  He  received 
a  book  from  Aunt  Nellie,  Uncle  Joe  sent  him  a  toy  gun,  and  there  was 
a  wheelbarrow  from  Cousin  Fred. 

5.  The  tops  of  the  trees  held  the  sunlight  awhile,  then  it  rested  on 
the  hills,  and  finally  night  chased  away  the  last  lingering  rays. 

6.  "  Ole  Miss  Robinson  "  never  changed.  She  still  rocked  nerv- 
ously in  her  chair ;  she  had  not  ceased  bowing  in  her  jerky  manner  to 
all  who  passed  the  house ;  and  she  kept  up  her  habit  of  making  testy 
remarks  to  her  friends. 

7.  He  remarked  solemnly,  "  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  and  the 
wicked  have  come  on  evil  days." 

8.  She  seated  herself  at  the  piano  and  the  next  moment  the  keys 
were  pressed  by  her  long,  slender  fingers. 

9.  Give  me  liberty  or  I  would  rather  die. 

10.  "  Are  you  not  a  man  ?  "  the  captain  shouted  in  his  ear.  "  You 
have  courage  enough  to  hold  out  a  little  longer." 

11.  A  man  of  honesty  and  brave  enough  to  tell  the  truth  has  a  great 
opportunity. 

12.  It  is  said  to  be  the  ghost  of  a  trooper,  whose  head  had  been  car- 
ried away  by  a  cannon  ball,  and  the  country  people  see  him  now  hurry- 
ing along  in  the  gloom  of  night. 

13.  A  whistling  woman  and  a  hen  that  crows  will  never,  the  old 
proverb  says,  come  to  any  good  end. 

14.  The  two  brothers,  hard-hearted  and  selfish,  failed,  while  Cluck, 
who  was  kindness  itself,  found  the  Coldcn  River. 


COHERENCE  265 

V.  Ellipses 

Lack  of  coherence  often  results  from'  the  omission  of 
words  necessary  to  the  expression  of  the  thought.  "  Boys 
hke  'Treasure  Island'  better  than  girls  "  may  have  either  of 
two  meanings,  whereas  "  I  have  always  done  this  and  always 
intend  to  "  expresses  no  meaning  clearly,  since  it  demands  too 
much  of  the  reader  —  that  he  supply  a  form  of  the  verb  {do) 
not  already  used  in  the  sentence.  The  correction  of  such 
faulty  sentences  is  an  easy  matter.  The  only  difficulty  lies  in 
detecting  the  incomplete  construction  in  one's  own  work. 
What  is  clear  to  the  writer  when  he  sets  it  down  will  prob- 
ably be  clear  to  him  when  he  glances  over  it ;  but  if  he  reads 
the  passage  aloud,  his  ear  will  often  detect  ellipses  that  may 
blur  the  meaning. 

EXERCISE  2^1 -Oral 
SUPPLYING   OMITTED   WORDS 

Decide  whether  each  of  the  following  elliptical  sentences 
suggests  too  little,  or  a  wrong  idea  ;  then  amend  it. 

1.  Chop  the  raisins  fine,  then  soak  in  water  overnight. 

2.  John  had  done  this  once  and  intended  to  again. 

3.  Porto  Rico  is  nearer  New  York  than  Florida. 

4.  The  directors  elected  three  officers :  a  president,  a  secretary  and 
treasurer. 

5.  I  never  have  studied  that  subject  and  now  I  never  shall. 

6.  In  the  cellar  was  a  cider-barrel,  and  at  the  first  invitation  we  went 
to  get  some. 

7.  He  did  not  like  keeping  books,  so  resigned  it. 

8.  The  twenty-second  of  December  is  shorter  than  any  other  day  of 
the  year. 

9.  He  studied  as  hard  as  he  expected  us  to. 


266  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  232  -  Oral 

SUPPLVINCx    SUBJECTS   OF   VERBALS 

The  omission  of  any  lo<^ical  subject  for  a  participle  or  a 
gerund  is  often  disastrous  to  coherence.  As  you  have  already 
found  (Exercise  206),  participles  need  watching.  Often  a 
change  in  the  order  of  words  is  not  enough  to  make  clear 
the  connection  of  the  participle ;  the  whole  sentence  must 
be  recast  in  order  to  express  clearly  a  subject  only  vaguely 
suggested.    Correct  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  After  sitting  on  a  bench  for  some  time,  my  eyes  became  accus- 
tomed to  the  darkness. 

2.  Looking  further  down  the  street,  things  appear  so  small  that  I 
cannot  tell  what  they  are. 

3.  Entering  into  the  contest  with  great  energy,  his  military  knowl- 
edge soon  brought  him  promotion. 

4.  Listening  carefully,  the  sounds  seemed  to  come  from  behind  a 
chest  of  drawers. 

5.  Looking  closely  at  the  specimen,  it  appeared  to  be  covered  with 
fine  hairs. 

6.  Before  beginning  to  write,  all  the  material  should  be  in  hand. 

7.  On  listening  to  the  old  man's  story,  a  compromise  was  arranged. 

8.  While  in  the  midst  of  the  story,  my  reading  was  interrupted  by  the 
dinner  bell. 

9.  Having  mounted  a  stair  of  corresponding  rudeness,  consisting  of 
huge  blocks  of  stone  roughly  dressed  with  the  hammer  and  of  unequal 
height,  a  strong  iron  door  admitted  them  to  the  great  hall  of  the  donjon. 

EXERCISE  233  —  Oral  and  Written 

STUDYING   AND   WRITING   A   COIIF.RKXT    PARAGRAPH 

This  is  a  trick  that  will  always  mystify  the  younger  members  of 
the  family  and  some  of  the  older  ones  too.  In  preparation,  write  in 
milk  on  your  forearm  the  letters  grant  and  let  them  dry.  Then, 
going  in  to  the  children,  ask  them  to  mention  men  prominent  in 
the  Civil  War.    As  they  call  out  the  name  of  each  man,  write  on 


COHERENCE  267 

a  slip  of  paper,  without  their  seeing  it,  not  the  various  names,  but 
each  time  Grant.  Fold  the  slips  and  drop  them  into  a  hat.  After 
you  have  a  number  of  slips,  ask  the  children  to  draw  out  one,  read, 
and  burn  it,  taking  care  not  to  let  you  see  the  name,  which  will,  of 
course,  be  the  only  one  that  you  have  written.  Taking  the  ashes, 
rub  them  on  your  forearm,  and  there,  mystery  of  mysteries,  will 
appear  the  name   Grant. 

a.  Is  every  essential  detail  for  the  successful  performance 
of  the  trick  given  .?  Are  the  details  given  in  order  ?  What 
devices  are  used  to  bind  the  sentences  together  and  thus  to 
give  the  whole  paragraph  connectedness  ? 

b.  Write  directions  in  a  similar  manner  for  performing 
some  trick.    Take  care  to  secure  coherence 

EXERCISE  234  —  Written 
TEST   THEME— PARAPHRASE 

With  all  these  devices  in  mind  for  giving  an  impression  of 
coherence,  we  are  well  prepared  to  appreciate  the  connected- 
ness in  what  we  read  and  to  learn  from  it  how  to  write  better 
ourselves.  It  would  hardly  pay  merely  to  copy  what  a  master 
has  written,  but  there  is  much  to  be  learned  in  trying  to  do 
his  work  over  in  a  slightly  different  way. 

Write  in  good  prose  one  of  the  following  incidents.  Keep 
the  language  when  it  is  good  in  prose,  but  be  careful  not  to 
use  words  or  expressions  or  order  distinctively  poetic.  Be 
careful,  also,  to  give  unity  and  coherence  to  each  paragraph 
that  you  make.  You  may  have  excellent  practice  in  point  of 
view  (see  Chapter  III)  by  writing  the  same  incident  in  the 
first  and  in  the  third  person. 

1.  Cowper,  "  The  Diverting  History  of  John  Gilpin." 

2.  Whittier,  "Abraham  Davenport." 

3.  Longfellow,  "  The  Children's  Hour." 


268  FIRST  BOOK  OP^  COMPOSITION 

4.  Longfellow,  "  Paul  Revere's  Ride."   (Tell  this  in  the  first  person.) 

5.  Southey,  "  The  Battle  of  Blenheim." 

6.  Wordsworth,  "  Lucy  Gray." 

7.  Shakespeare,  "A  Midsummer-Night's  Dream,"  Act  III,  scene  ii, 
lines  6-34.    (Tell  this  in  the  third  person.) 

8.  Lanier,  "  Nine  from  Eight." 

9.  Browning,  "  An  Incident  of  the  French  Camp." 

B.    COHERENCE    IN   THE   WHOLE    COMPOSITION 

We  can  learn  much  about  the  organization  of  longer  arti- 
cles by  making  outlines  and  synopses  of  those  written  by  real 
masters.  If  the  outline  of  a  good  article  is  well  made,  it 
should  show,  preferably  in  complete  sentences,  all  the  im- 
portant parts  in  their  relation  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole. 
It  is  seldom  wise  to  carry  the  analysis  beyond  the  second 
subhead.  The  ability  to  make  such  outlines  is  neces.sary 
before  one  can  write  long  articles  himself  or  even  read  with 
intelligent  appreciation  such  articles  by  others.  Here  is  the 
outline  of  a  lecture  by  Thomas  Henry  Huxley.^ 

YEAST 
./.   What  is  yeast.'' 

I.  The  microscopist  has  shown  that: 

a.  It  is  a  substance  composed  of  an  enormous  multitude  of 

definitely  formed  grains  floating  in  a  liquid ; 

b.  These  grains  (torulae)  constantly  reproduce  by  budding. 
II.  The  chemist  has  shown  that : 

a.  The  yeast  plant  is  composed  of  a  cellulose  bag  containing 

a  vegeto-animal  semifluid ; 

b.  Its  active  parts  contain  protein, 

I.  which   is  similar  to  the  fundamental  substance  of 
every  animal  organism. 

1  A  part  of  a  lecture  (1781)  on  I'rotoplasm  and  the  Germ  Theor)',  quoted  in 
Andrews's  "  Specimens  of  Discourse."  (If  a  minute  and  exhaustive  analysis  of  a  long 
piece  of  writing  is  desired,  see  Lamont's  edition  of  Burke's  ''  Speech  on  Con- 
ciliation with  .\merica,"  pp.  lvi-l.\iv.    Ginn  and  Company.) 


COHERENCE  269 

B.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  products  of  fermentation  ? 

I.  The  sugar  is  broken  up  into : 

a.  Carbonic  acid  gas, 

b.  Alcohol,  and 

c.  A  small  quantity  of  succinic  acid  and  glycerine. 

C.  What  causes  fermentation  ? 

I.  The  torula  must  cause  fermentation  ;   for  there  is  none  if 

a.  The  liquid  of  the  yeast,  from  which  the  torula  has  been 

removed  by  straining,  is  used ; 

b.  The  torula  is  killed  by  heating ;  or 

c.  Air,  in  which  the  torula  floats,  is  excluded. 

II.  Theories  of  how  the  torula  causes  fermentation  are: 

a.  Faulty  theories : 

1 .  Fabroni's, 

2.  Thenard's. 

b.  Accepted  theory : 

I .   Liebig's  :   that  particles  of  sugar  are  shaken  asunder 
by  the  forces  at  work  in  the  yeast  plant. 

D.  Applications  of  these  discoveries  have  proved : 

I.  That  all  plants  are  vitally  related  to  animal  life;  and 
II.  That  many  diseases  are  caused  by  a  similar  multiplication  of 
germs. 

EXERCISE  235  —  Written 

Make  a  skeleton  outline  of  one  of  the  following,  taking 
pains  to  show  by  the  form  of  the  outline  the  relation  of  the 
parts  : 

1.  Irving,  "  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow.'" 

2.  Hawthorne,  "  The  Great  Stone  Face.'' 

3.  Emery,  "  How  to  Enjoy  Pictures  "  (any  chapter). 

4.  Addison  and  Steele,  "  The  Spectator  "  (a  selected  paper). 

5.  Parkman,  "  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  "  (Vol.  I,  chaps,  i,  iv,  or  v,  or 
almost  any  chapter  of  Parkman's). 

6.  Stevenson,  "  Kidnapped  "  (chap.  x). 

7.  Bible  Story  (David,  Joseph,  Esther,  Ruth). 

8.  Kittredge,  Introduction  to  "  English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads." 


2/0  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  236  —  Written  and  Oral 
SYXOrSIS    AND   OUTLINES 

Using  the  outline  that  you  made  in  Exercise  235,  prepare 
a  three-minute  synopsis  of  the  article  ;  one  of  five  minutes ; 
one  of  one  minute.  Present  to  the  class  the  synopsis  called 
for  by  the  teacher.  Can  the  rest  of  the  class  make  a  good 
outline  from  your  oral  synopsis  ? 

C.    WRITING  A   CONNECTED   COMPOSITION    BASED 
ON    READING 

I.   FixDiNc  Material 

It  sometimes  happens  that  \ou  are  called  on  to  discuss 
some  subject  about  which  }ou  have  little  exact  knowledge. 
In  this  case  you  can  do  nothing  sincere  without  first  getting 
a  number  of  facts  and  then  interpreting  them  ;  consequently 
you  must  learn  not  only  how  to  find  facts  but  also  how  to 
interpret  them  before  beginning  actually  to  write.  If  }ou 
know  the  first  and  not  the  second,  you  will  surely  become  a 
copyist  and  not  a  composer. 

Ever)'  one  should  know  what  reference  books  are  available 
for  him,  and  what,  in  general,  they  contain.  Get  acquainted 
with  the  encyclopedias,  dictionaries,  and  hand-books  in  )-our 
library,  so  that  you  will  have  at  least  one  valuable  kind  of 
knowledge,  the  knowledge  of  where  you  may  find  informa- 
tion. Then,  when  beginning  to  work  on  some  topic,  find 
out  what  special  aids  on  it  your  library  contains.  In  large 
libraries  there  is  usually  some  one  to  show  you  the  uses  of 
the  catalogue  and  indexes  ;  in  small  ones  you  must  depend 
for  the  most  part  on  the  titles  of  books  and  then  on  their 
tables  of  contents  and  indexes. 


COHERENCE  27 1 

Not  all  that  you  find,  of  course,  will  be  equally  reliable  ; 
therefore  you  must  learn  to  weigh  your  evidence,  to  decide 
what  you  may  trust.  Many  books  and  articles  called  "  au- 
thorities "  are  obviously  written  in  a  partial  or  partisan  vein 
that  makes  them  almost  valueless  for  your  purpose.  Govern- 
ment reports,  most  books  that  have  survived  long  use  (unless, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  sciences,  there  have  been  many  changes 
in  recent  years),  books  written  by  men  who  have  learned  to 
find  the  truth  as  well  as  to  tell  it  —  these  you  may  trust.  Of 
course  no  general  statement  can  do  much  more  than  put  you 
on  your  guard  against  such  articles  as  are  not  trustworthy. 
You  must  consider  carefully  for  yourself  each  particle  of  evi- 
dence offered.  Frequently  a  very  casual  examination  of  a 
book  will  show  whether  it  is  too  detailed,  too  technical,  or 
too  old  for  your  use. 

Learn  to  use  the  preface,  the  table  of  contents,  and  the 
index.  The  preface  in  many  a  book  will  make  clear  at  once 
what  the  author's  purpose  is,  what  his  attitude  is,  and  what  his 
sources  are.  The  table  of  contents  shows  in  tabular  form  the 
organization  of  the  book,  and  from  it  you  may  find  what  part, 
if  any,  is  of  interest  to  you.  The  index  will  tell  where  in  the 
book  numerous  details  are  discussed.  Unfortunately  prefaces, 
tables  of  contents,  and  indexes  vary  in  fulness,  accuracy,  and 
excellence. 

EXERCISE  237 -OraZ 
LEARNING  TO   USE   BOOKS 

Examine  the  preface,  the  table  of  contents,  and  the  index 
in  three  books  that  are  not  primarily  literature.  Report  to 
the  class  what  each  contains  and  how  it  differs  from  the 
corresponding  part  in  the  other  books. 


272  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFITON 

EXERCISE  238  —  Oral  and  Written 
LEARNING   TO   USE  NEWSPAPERS 

Books  arc  supposed  to  present  final  judgments ;  news- 
papers give  what  seems  to  be  the  truth  from  day  to  day, 
often  correcting  or  denying  in  one  issue  what  has  appeared 
in  a  previous  one.  It  is  important  for  readers  to  learn  to  sift 
the  mass  of  newspaper  statements  for  themselves,  to  throw 
away  what  is  clearly  untrue  or  of  no  value,  and  to  save  the 
kernel  of  fact  in  perhaps  a  page  of  chaff. 

Select  some  subject  now  being  treated  in  the  papers  ;  for 
instance,  a  strike,  .  change  in  football  rules,  a  trip  by  the 
President,  preparation  for  a  "  sane  "  Fourth  of  July,  munici- 
pal improvements,  or,  best  of  all,  some  active  local  issue. 
Read  daily  what  is  written  about  it  and  decide,  as  best  you 
can,  what  is  true.  Make  a  statement  in  your  notebook  each 
day  of  the  facts  as  they  seem  then.  When  the  matter  —  or 
some  phase  of  it  —  is  concluded,  write  an  account  of  it  from 
the  beginning  of  your  note-taking  to  the  end.  Imagine  that 
your  article  is  intended  for  a  certain  magazine,  as  this  may  help 
you  to  determine  whal;  to  include  and  what  to  omit. 

IF  Taking  Notes 

When  working  up  an  article  you  will  need  to  take  notes. 
For  these  use  loose  leaves  of  a  notebook  or  cards  of  a  uni- 
form size,  since  they  can  be  so  ordered  at  any  time  as  to 
bring  together  all  the  material  on  each  phase  of  the  subject. 
Moreover,  it  is  a  considerable  saving  to  write  but  one  note 
on  each  sheet  or  card.  Paper  is  cheaper  than  time,  and  it  is 
no  economy  to  save  paper  and  secure  an  effect  that  is  poor 
through  lack  of  organization. 


COHERENCE  273 

Take  few  notes  ;  usually  you  will  find,  when  you  come  to 
the  actual  writing,  that  you  have  far  more  material  than  you 
can  possibly  use.  Quote  seldom.  It  is  not  often  that  you 
will  need  to  use  a  writer's  exact  words,  —  only  when  they  are 
in  summary  or  when  they  are  notably  vigorous  or  striking. 
And  on  each  card  make  a  memorandum  of  the  source  of  the 
data,  citing  volume  and  page  ;  this  item  will  save  you  much 
time  in  case  you  need  to  seek  verification  or  more  information 
from  the  same  source. 

But  even  before  beginning  work  on  a  book  of  reference, 
decide  what  you  expect  to  get  from  it.  Not  often  does  one 
find  time  to  read  a  whole  book  through  for  a  single  point. 
By  means  of  the  index  and  the  table  of  contents,  particularly 
if  the  latter  is  analytical,  go  after  your  particular  information. 

Practice  going  to  the  heart  of  the  reference,  finding  the 
essential  thought,  however  it  may  be  hidden  in  illustration  or 
elaboration.  Do  not  fail  to  note  the  context  of  the  passage  to 
which  you  are  referred  ;  the  meaning  depends  largely  upon 
what  precedes  or  what  follows  it. 

As  you  get  the  author's  thought,  add  it  to  something  already 
in  your  mind  and  question  what  bearing  it  has  on  your  topic. 
Does  it  contradict  something  already  accepted  ?  Is  the  contra- 
diction oral  or  apparent  ?  If  the  latter,  which  fact  is  true  ? 
Does  it  add  a  new  point  or  line  of  thought  ?  Does  it  modify 
your  point  of  \iew  ?  After  you  have  considered  the  bearing 
of  the  reference  on  your  plan,  make  in  your  notes  a  state- 
ment sufficient  to  bring  to  mind  everything  essential.  "  But 
learn  not  to  record  unnecessary  matter.  When  you  have 
found  in  the  reference  what  you  need,  lay  the  book  aside. 
A  great  deal  of  time  is  wasted  in  reading  and  recording  what 
is  unnecessary  in  the  development  of  the  topic. 


2/4  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  239  —  Written 

Work  up  material  on  one  of  the  following  topics,  reporting 
all  books  and  articles  consulted  and  telling  why  you  went 
to  them  : 

1.  Did  Pocahontas  save  the  life  of  Captain  John  Smith? 

2.  Talking  machines. 

3.  A  Roman  marriage. 

4.  Our  spelling  should  be  reformed. 

5.  What  effect  will  the  Panama  Canal  have  on  New  Orleans .'' 

6.  Some  recent  arctic  explorations. 

7.  Birds  and  agriculture. 

8.  The  problem  of  street  cleaning. 

9.  The  hygiene  of  drinking  water. 

10.  Protective  coloring  of  animals  (or  plants). 

11.  Insect  architecture. 

12.  The  movement  of  glaciers. 

13.  How  vines  climb. 

14.  Chemistry  in  industry. 

15.  The  greatness  of  George  Washington. 

16.  The  inland  waterways  movement. 

17.  The  parole  system  should  be  adopted  for  adult  prisoners  convicted 
of  minor  offenses. 

18.  Women  should  have  the  right  of  suffrage. 

19.  The  Boy  Scouts  (or  Campfire  Girls). 

20.  The  moving  picture  show. 

III.    Writing  from  Notes 

Having  finished  the  collection  of  notes,  you  need  to  read 
them  and  think  them  over  until  you  have  possession  of  the 
subject-matter.  This  will  necessitate  your  comparing  the 
statements  of  the  various  writers  not  only  with  each  other 
but  also  with  what  you  know  from  your  own  experience.  You 
should,  of  course,  have  no  aim  except  to  find  what  is  true. 


COHERENCE  275 

EXERCISE  240  —  Written 
MAKING   A   COHERENT   OUTLINE   FROM   NOTES 

With  the  subject-matter  in  mind,  block  out  your  theme. 
It  is  well  to  use  a  large  sheet  of  paper  on  which  to  indicate 
your  general  heads  and  the  subheads.  Then  if  your  notes 
are  on  convenient  cards  or  loose  sheets,  you  can  sort  them 
into  piles  corresponding  to  the  topics  in  your  outline.  Your 
outline  may  look  somewhat  like  that  of  Huxley's  lecture 
on  page  268. 

Be  sure  that  the  outline  has  unity,  that  the  connections  are 
clearly  indicated,  and  that  similar  points  have  similar  form. 
At  a  glance  you  can  tell  from  the  form  how  many  points 
Huxley  makes  and  what  are  the  details  under  each  head. 

Finally  comes  the  task  of  writing  out  your  theme.  If  you 
have  made  the  outline  with  care,  this  expansion  of  it  into 
connected  discourse  will  be  the  easiest  part  of  the  work. 
There  before  you  is  the  plan  to  follow  ;  the  connections  are 
clear  in  your  mind  ;  nothing  remains  except  to  set  down  in 
its  fulness  what  you  have  already  thought.  But  what  you  set 
down  must  represent  your  own  thought,  your  own  judgment, 
your  own  conclusions.  It  would  manifestly  be  dishonest  to 
write  anything  else. 

It  is  hard  to  draw  the  line  where  the  legitimate  use  of 
material  leaves  off  and  plagiarism,  or  literary  stealing,  begins. 
It  is  perfectly  proper,  of  course,  to  write  that  Shakespeare 
was  born  in  1 564  or  that  London  is  a  larger  city  than  Boston, 
for  these  are  matters  of  general  information  or  data  that  every 
one  understands  must  be  secured  from  history  or  gazetteer. 
But  it  is  quite  a  different  matter  to  assert  as  your  own  that  fools 
use  wagers  for  arguments  or  that  you  cannot  hear  what  one 
says  because  his  character  speaks  so  loud.    These  phrases 


2/6  FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSmOX 

are  too  thoroughly  a  part  of   Butler  and    Emerson   to  be 
expressed  as  one's  own,  even  thoiigh  in  paraphrases. 

Some  writers  seem  to  have  the  idea  that  if  they  take  only 
a  sentence  or  two  here  and  there  from  an  article  they  are  not 
stealing ;  but  it  is  hard  to  see  how  this  aj^propriation  differs 
from  any  other  petty  larceny.  The  plan  of  an  article,  the  judg- 
ment, the  conclusion,  the  felicities  of  style,  belong  to  an  author 
quite  as  much  as  his  clothes  do.  If  any  of  them  is  borrowed, 
the  owner  must  be  compensated,  at  least  by  quotation  marks. 
But  far  better  than  any  definition  of  plagiarism,  as  a  guide 
to  w^hat  may  be  taken,  is  one's  conscience. 

EXERCISE  2^1 -Written 
TEST  THEME  — WRITING   FROM   NOTES 

Write  the  theme  outlined  in  the  preceding  exercises. 
Revise  your  work  carefully  to  see,  first,  that  you  have,  through 
variety  and  other  means,  written  so  as  to  interest  your  readers. 
Be  sure  that  both  sentences  and  paragraphs  have  unity  and 
coherence. 

In  a  composition  of  several  paragraphs  a  writer  should  be 
sure  that  he  makes  each  point  clear  before  introducing  the 
next.  There  is  no  better  means  than  this  of  securing  con- 
nectedness of  the  whole  in  the  mind  of  the  reader.  Unless 
at  the  end  of  each  paragraph  he  knows  exactly  what  has  been 
told  him,  hov^  can  he  take  the  steps  forward  with  the  writer 
to  a  general  conclusion  ?  Consequently,  before  leaving  a  para- 
graph a  writer  should  be  sure  that  he  has  made  clear  the 
unified  impression  that  he  had  in  mind.  Sentences  of  sum- 
mary and  clear  topic  sentences  for  paragraphs  will  aid  cohe- 
rence and  unity.    Apply  all  that  }ou  have  learned. 


COHERENCE  277 

EXERCISE  242  —  Written 

TEST   THEME 

Write  on  one  or  more  of  the  topics  suggested  at  the  close 
of  this  chapter  or  of  other  chapters,  choosing  those  involving 
your  own  experience  or  imagination,  not  material  gained  by 
research.  It  would  be  interesting  to  use  one  topic  from  an 
early  chapter  (say  III  or  IV)  upon  which  you  have  written 
before,  and  to  write  without  consulting  your  former  theme, 
applying  all  that  you  have  learned  since  that  was  written.  In 
class  each  pupil  may  criticize  all  the  themes  with  regard  to 
one  particular  point.  One  set  of  themes  may  be  exchanged 
for  careful  written  criticism  by  other  members  of  the  class. 

SUGGESTED  THEME  TOPICS 

1.  The  Immigrant's  Trials. 

2.  My  First  Formal  Call. 

3.  The  Persistent  Agent. 

4.  Being  an  Agent  —  the  Other  Side. 

5.  Eclipses  —  What  They  Are. 

6.  Meteors,  Comets,  and  Shooting  Stars. 

7.  How  Much  Is  a  Million  ? 

8.  Tides. 

9.  The  Phases  of  the  Moon. 

10.  Advertisements. 

11.  A  Wild  Goose  Chase. 

12.  Lost,  Strayed,  or  Stolen. 

13.  A  Modern  Crusoe. 

14.  My  Christmas  Shopping. 

15.  An  Undeserved  Punishment  (Reward). 

16.  Wires  Crossed. 

17.  Fun  with  a  Camera. 

18.  Unexpected. 

19.  A  Reformer  and  His  Work. 


APPENDIX  A 

SYMBOLS   USED   IN  CRITICIZING  THEMES 

Amb ambiguous 

Antec agreement  of  pronoun  and  antecedent 

Bw better  word  needed 

Cap use  capital  letter 

Coh coherence 

D see  dictionary 

Def definiteness 

Form form  needs  improvement 

Gr grammar  at  fault 

Hy hyphen 

Inex inexact 

Int ."....  interest  lacking 

K awkward 

l.c use  small  letter 

p punctuation 

Quots quotation  marks 

S no  sentence 

Sine sincerity  questioned 

sp spelling 

tr transfer 

U unity 

Var variety 

W weak 

V any  obvious  error 

Q) de/e  =  omit 

?     .     .      .' questions  a  fact 

IT make  a  paragraph 

nJ' apostrophe 

D   indent 

279 


APPENDIX   B 

WORDS   OFTEN    CONFUSED 


I 


Synonyms  and  Other  Words 


advice.,  advise 
affect.,  effect 
after,  afterward 

aggravate,  annoy,  provoke,  ex- 
asperate, irritate 
allow,  think,  say 
allude  to,  mention 
allusion,  illusion 
almost,  most 
alternative,  choice 
aviong,  between 
amount,  number,  quantity 
angry,  mad 
apt.  likely,  liable 
aji'/ul,  severe,  unpleasant,  etc. 
bad,  severe,  dangerous 
balance,  remainder 
beside,  besides 
calculate,  intend 
can,  may 
casualty,  casuality 
character,  reputation 


claim,  assert,  contend 
clever,  pleasant 
cloths,  clothes 
condign,  severe 

conscious,   conscience,   conscien- 
tious 
contefuptiblc,  contemptuous 
continual,  continuous 
corporal,  corporeal 
couple,  pair 

credible,  creditable,  credulous 
custom,  habit,  practice 
deadly,  deathly 
deceased,  diseased 
decided,  decisive 
dependent,  dependant 
deiice,  devise 
either,  each 
elegant,  delightful 
estimate,  esteem 
exceptionable,  exceptional 
expect,  suspect,  think 


280 


APPENDIX  B 


281 


farther,  further 

female,  woman 

fix,  mend,  repair 

fly,  flee 

formerly,  formally 

funny,  odd,  queer 

get,  have 

guess,  think,  suppose 

hanged,  hung 

healthy,  healthful,  wholesome 

home,  house,  residence 

human,  humane 

immatient,  imminent,  eminent 

in,  into 

indorse,  approve 

infer,  imply 

iffortned,  posted 

intelligent,  intellectual 

its,  it  's 

jeutelry,  jewels 

lady,  woman 

last,  latest,  preceding 

later,  latter 

learn,  teach 

leave,  let 

less,  fewer 

lightning,  lightening 

like,  as  if,  as  though 

loathe,  loth 

lose,  loose,  loss 

lots  of,  much,  many 

love,  like 

majority,  plurality 


man,  gentleman 

migrate,  immigrate,  emigrate 

musical,  musicale 

mutual,  common 

necessities,  necessaries 

nice,  charming,  pleasant,  etc. 

notorious,  noted,  notable 

C>,  oh 

observance,  observation 

.^off 

or,  o'er 

oral,  verbal 

part,  portion 

paiily,  partially 

party,  person 

persecute,  prosecute 

pillar,  pillow 

pistol,  pistil 

plenty,  plentiful 

practical,  practicable 

prescribe,  proscribe 

proceed,  precede 

promise,  assure 

prophesy,  prophecy 

propose,  purpose 

quiet,  quite 

quite,  somewhat,  very 

raise,  rear,  bring  up 

real,  really,  extremely 

recollect,  remember 

relation,  relative 

reverend,  reverent 

ride,  drive 


262 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


scholar,  pupil,  student 
sewage,  sewerage 
some,  somewhat 
splendid,  pleasing,  etc. 
statue,  statute,  stature 
sta}\  stop 
team,  equipage 
transpire,  happen 


ugly,  \-icious 
unique,  unusual 
vahced,  valuable 
venal,  venial 
vocation,  avocation 
which,  who 
without,  unless 
woman,  women 


II 

Homonyms 

There  are  in  the  English  language  more  than  three  hundred 
groups  of  words  called  homonyms,  which,  although  pronounced 
alike,  are  spelled  differently  and  have  different  meanings.  In  the 
following  lists  one  word  is  given  from  each  of  the  more  important 
groups.  Find  two  homonyms  for  each  word  in  the  first  list,  and 
one  for  each  in  the  second.  Note  carefully  in  each  case  the  spelling 
and  distinguish  the  meanings. 


carat 

ore 

ram 

so 

feign 

pair 

sack 

two 

I 

peak 

seer 

vain 

idle 

praise 

6 

beer 

sight 

you 

air 

bail 

bough 

canvas 

aisle 

ball 

bell 

bowl 

capital 

ale 

barren 

berr}' 

breach 

cast 

alter 

base 

berth 

bread 

cause 

ark 

beach 

blue 

browse 

censor 

ascent 

bean 

board 

build 

cents 

bade 

bear 

bolder 

cannon 

cereal 

APPENDIX  E 

283 

choir 

gate 

mantel 

raise 

steak 

claws 

great 

marshal 

rap 

steal 

climb 

guild 

maze 

red 

straight 

colonel 

guilt 

meat 

reed 

style 

complement 

hail 

medal 

rest 

sucker 

corps 

hair 

metal 

ring 

surge 

council 

hall 

might 

road 

sweet 

course 

heal 

miner 

roe 

symbol 

cue 

hear 

need 

roll 

tale 

currant 

hew 

night 

rough 

taper 

Dane 

him 

none 

rung 

taught 

desert 

hole 

nose 

rye 

tea 

die 

holy 

not 

sail 

their 

done 

hoop 

ought 

sane 

threw 

dual 

in 

our 

sealing 

tide 

dying 

indict 

pain 

seam 

tier 

earn 

jam 

palate 

seed 

time 

fair 

key 

pale 

seen 

trout 

fawn 

knave 

peace 

sell 

vale 

feet 

lane 

peal 

sent 

vice 

ferule 

laps 

pedal 

serf 

wait 

flee 

leaf 

peer 

shear 

waste 

flower 

leak 

plain 

shoot 

wave 

four 

led 

plait 

sign 

way 

fourth 

limb 

plum 

skull 

weak 

fowl 

load 

pole 

some 

weather 

freeze 

made 

pour 

sore 

write 

fur 

mail 

principal 

soul 

wrote 

gamble 

main 

rabbit 

stationary 

wry 

APPENDIX   C 


Principal  Parts  of  Verbs  often  Misused 


Presknt 

Past 

Past  Particu-le 

attack 

attacked 

attacked 

be 

was 

been 

begin 

began 

begun 

bid 

bade 

bidden 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break 

broke 

broken 

burst 

burst 

burst 

buy 

bought 

bought 

catch 

caught 

caught 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

climb 

climbed 

climbed 

come 

came 

come 

dive 

dived 

dived 

do 

did 

done 

drag 

dragged 

dragged 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

drive 

drove 

driven 

drown 

drowned 

drowned 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

flee 

fled 

fled 

fly 

flew 

flown 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

grow 

grew 
284 

grown 

. 

APPENDIX  C 

28t 

Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

hang  (execute) 

hanged 

hanged 

hang  (suspend) 

hung 

hung 

heat 

heated 

heated 

know 

knew 

known 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lend 

lent 

lent 

lie 

lay 

lain 

lose 

lost 

lost 

plead 

pleaded 

pleaded 

prove 

proved 

proved 

raise 

raised 

raised 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

ring 

rang,  rung 

rung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

set 

set 

set 

shine 

shone 

shone 

sing 

sang,  sung 

sung 

sit 

sat 

sat 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

spring 

sprang,  sprung 

sprung 

strike 

struck 

struck 

swim 

swam,  swum 

swum 

take 

took 

taken 

tear 

tore 

torn 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

write 

wrote 

written 

APPENDIX   D 


One  Thousand  Words  often  Misspelled 


abbreviation 

aggravate 

apparent 

abdomen 

aggrieve 

appeal 

abscess 

agreeable 

appearance 

acceptance 

all  right 

appendicitis 

accessible 

allusion 

applaud 

accidentally 

alluvial 

appliance 

accommodate 

ally 

appreciate 

accompaniment 

almost 

appropriation 

accumulate 

already  (cf.  all  ready) 

approval 

accurate 

always 

architecture 

ache 

ambassador 

arctic 

achieve 

amount 

are  n't 

acquaintance 

anaesthetic 

argument 

acquire 

analysis 

arouse 

acre 

analyses 

arrangement 

across 

analyze 

arrest 

adjective 

angel 

arrival 

admissible 

anniversary 

articles 

admission 

annoyance 

artificial 

admittance 

annual 

asked 

advantageous 

annuity 

assassinate 

advertise 

anxious 

assemblies 

aeronautics 

appall 

assistance 

aeroplane 

appalling 

association 

aesthetic 

apparatus 

assure 

again 

apparel 
286 

athlete 

APPENDIX  D 

287 

athletics 

break 

ceiling 

Atlantic 

brethren 

cemetery 

attacked 

brief 

central 

attention 

Britain 

century 

attorney 

bruise 

certain 

attract 

brute 

changeable 

auction 

bureau 

characteristic 

audacious 

burglar 

chariot 

automobile 

bushels 

chauffeur 

autumn 

business 

chemistry 

avenue 

cable 

chieftain 

bachelor 

Caesar 

chimney 

baggage 

calendar 

chivalry 

baking 

camera 

cholera 

balance 

campaign 

choose 

balloon 

camphor 

chores 

bananas 

canal 

chosen 

bankruptcy 

candidate 

circular 

barbarous 

can't 

cistern 

bargained 

capabilities 

civilize 

because 

capacity 

cleanse 

becoming 

capillary 

coast 

beginning 

careful 

Colosseum 

believe 

caricature 

combated 

beneficial 

carrying 

comedies 

benefited 

cartridge 

comical 

bereave 

casualty 

coming 

beseech 

catarrh 

commander 

bicycle 

catch 

commemorate 

biting 

catechism 

commerce 

bitten 

Catholic 

commission 

blamable 

caught 

committee 

boaster 

cautiously 

commodious 

bought 

ceased 

commotion 

boundary 

cedar 

companies 

288 


FIRST   BOOK  OF  COMPOS ITION 


comparatively 

court 

devise 

compelling 

•   courtesy 

diamond 

competitive 

covetous 

diary 

conceit 

creatures 

difference 

conceivable 

creek 

difficulty 

concern 

crisis  • 

dignified 

condescension 

cruel 

dignitary 

confectionery 

curiosity 

dilapidated 

confederation 

curtain 

diphtheria 

conferees 

cylinder 

diphthong 

conferred 

cylindrical 

disagreeable 

confidants 

daily 

disappear 

confidence 

dairy 

disappoint 

congenial 

deceit 

discernible 

conqueror 

deceive 

disciple 

conscience 

decimal 

discipline 

conscientious 

dedicated 

discriminate 

conscious 

defendant 

disease 

consent 

definite 

disguise 

considered 

deity 

disinfectant 

consistent 

delegate 

dismissal 

constant 

delicious 

disobey 

contemporary 

derivative 

dissatisfied 

contemptible 

descend 

dissipation 

contour 

descendant 

distance 

contract 

description 

distinguished 

control 

despair 

divisible 

controlling 

desperate 

doctor 

convalescence 

despicable 

does 

convenient 

despise 

does  n't 

corporation 

despondent 

domestic 

could  n't 

destitute 

don't 

councilor 

destroy 

doubt 

counterfeit 

detached 

drier 

courageous 

develop 

driving 

APPENDIX  I) 

289 

drowned 

essays 

field 

dubious 

etc. 

fiend 

duly 

exaggerate 

fierce 

duteous 

exasperate 

fiery 

dutiful 

exceed 

figurative 

dyspepsia 

excel 

finally 

early 

excellence 

financial 

earnest 

except 

flue 

eccentric 

exceptions 

forcible 

ecstasy 

excitement 

fore 

edible 

executive 

foreign 

effect 

exhaust 

forfeit 

eighths 

exhilarate 

forty-four 

either 

existence 

fourteen 

elapse 

exorbitant 

fraudulent 

elector 

expense 

freight 

elegant 

experience 

French 

eligible 

extraordinary 

friend 

embarrassment 

extravagance 

fundamental 

embroidered 

extremity 

further 

emergency 

familiar 

gardener 

emigrate 

famous 

gayety 

employees 

farthest 

gayly 

employment 

fascinate 

genealogy 

enemies 

fatal 

generally 

engagement 

fatiguing 

geography 

enough 

faucet 

George  Eliot 

enterprise 

favorite 

gnawed 

enthusiasm 

feasible 

government 

envelope 

features 

governor 

environment 

February 

grammar 

equally 

feign 

grateful 

equator 

felicity 

grievance 

equivalent 

feminine 

group 

especially 

fertile 

guarantee 

290 


IIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


guardian 

ignition 

insistence 

guests 

illegal 

intellectual 

gymnasium 

illusion 

intelligible 

hackneyed 

illustrate 

intermittent 

hammer 

imaginary 

interpret 

hammock 

imitate 

intimate 

handkerchief 

immaterial 

intricacy 

handsome 

immature 

introduce 

harangue 

immediately 

inveigle 

harass 

immense 

investigation 

harbor 

immigrant 

irascible 

hauled 

imminent 

ironical 

have  n't 

immovable 

irregular 

height 

impromptu 

irrelevant 

heinous 

improvement 

irresistible 

hemorrhage 

inaugurate 

irrigate 

hereditary 

incidentally 

is  n't 

heroes 

increased 

isthmus 

hindrance 

indefinite 

itinerant 

holiness 

independence 

itself 

honey 

indescribable 

jailer 

honorable 

indestructible 

jealous 

hoping 

indicative 

jeopardy 

hopping 

indispensable 

journal 

hosiery 

individual 

journey 

hospitable 

indomitable 

judgment 

hugely 

infinite 

knead 

humorous 

infinitive 

knew 

hundredths 

infringement 

knowledge 

hurrying 

ingenious 

laboratory 

hygiene 

inhabitant 

laid 

hypocrisy 

injunction 

language 

hypocrite 

inquiry 

languor 

icicle 

insatiable 

latitude 

identically 

insignificant 

laugh 

APPENDIX  D 

291 

launch 

manageable 

mitigate 

lead 

maneuver 

modifier 

leave 

manufacturing 

moisture 

ledge 

many 

molasses 

legal 

marine 

monastery 

legible 

maritime 

moneys 

legislature 

marriage 

monoplane 

leisure 

massacre 

monstrosity 

length 

mathematics 

month 

leopard 

meanness 

morality 

lettuce 

meant 

morally 

level 

medicinal 

moreover 

library 

medicine 

mosquitoes 

license 

medieval 

motor 

lie 

medium 

mottoes 

lief 

melancholy 

mountainous 

limit 

melodies 

movable 

liniment 

mercenary 

much 

liquor 

merchant 

municipal 

literature 

merciless 

murmuring 

living 

merely 

musician 

loathsome 

merrily 

muslin 

longevity 

messenger 

mysterious 

longitude 

military 

national 

loose 

millinery 

naturally 

loss 

millions 

navigable 

lucrative 

miniature 

necessarily 

luscious 

minutes 

negative 

lying 

miracle 

negroes 

Macaulay 

miraculous 

neighbor 

Macbeth 

miscellaneous 

neither 

machinery 

mischievous 

nervous 

magnificent 

misshapen 

neuralgia 

majority 

missionary 

Niagara 

manacle 

misspell 

nickel 

292 


I'lKsr   P.OOK  OF  COMPOSITION 


niece 

parallel 

pierce 

ninety 

paralysis 

pitch 

ninth 

paralyze 

pitiable 

noise 

parents 

pitiful 

noticeable 

parliament 

plagiarism 

novelist 

participle 

plaintiff 

numerous 

particularly 

planned 

obedience 

partition 

plateau 

objection 

partner 

plausible 

occasionally 

partridge 

pleasant 

occupant 

peculiarly 

pleasurable 

occurrence 

pecuniary 

pliable 

o'clock 

pendulum 

poetry 

officer 

people 

popular 

often 

perceive 

portentous 

omission 

per  cent 

possession 

omitted 

peremptory 

possessive 

oneself 

performed 

potatoes 

onions 

permanent 

practical 

operation 

permissible 

practicing 

opportunity 

persecute 

prairies 

opposite 

perseverance 

preach 

optician 

perspiration 

preference 

orange 

persuade 

preferred 

orator 

petition 

prejudice 

ordinarily 

Pharisaical 

preliminar)' 

organization 

phenomenon 

preparation 

original 

phrase 

preposition 

ornaments 

physical 

prerogative 

outrageous 

physician 

prescription 

pacific 

physics 

presence 

palatable 

physiology 

presentiment 

Palestine 

picnic 

president 

pallor 

picnicking 

prettily 

panicky 

picture 

prevalent 

APPENDIX  D 

293 

primary 

reason 

reserving 

primitive 

rebellious 

reservoir 

prisoner 

recede 

residence 

privilege 

receipt 

resident 

probably 

receive 

respectfully 

problem 

recess 

respectively 

procedure 

reciprocity 

responsible 

proceed 

recognition 

restaurant 

procession 

recognize 

resurrection 

profession 

recollect 

retribution 

professor 

recommend 

retrieve 

proficient 

reference 

revenue 

prohibitory 

referred 

reversible 

promenading 

region 

review 

pronunciation 

rehearsal 

rhetoric 

proprietor 

relative 

rhythm 

prosecute 

released 

ridiculous 

Protestant 

relief 

righteous 

prove 

religious 

rinse 

pumpkin 

remedy 

Roman 

punctuation 

remembrance 

route 

purity 

remittance 

routine 

pursue 

remodeled 

ruffian 

pursuit 

removal 

sacrilegious 

quantity 

remunerate 

safety 

quarrel 

renunciation 

sailor 

quarter 

repetition 

salable 

quotation 

reprehensible 

salad 

rabid 

represent 

salary 

raisins 

representation 

scarce 

rarity 

repressible 

scenery 

ready 

reprieve 

schedule 

reality 

republicans 

scheme 

really 

rescue 

scholars 

realty 

resemble 

scientific 

294               I'lK-ST 

HOOK  OF  COMPOSITION 

scintillate 

skeleton 

success 

scissors 

skies 

suflficient 

scrutinize 

sleigh 

sugar 

sculpture 

sleight 

suicide 

scythe 

slyly 

sulphur 

secede 

sociable 

summary 

secretary 

solicitous 

superintendent 

sedentary 

soliloquy 

supersede 

sediment 

sophomore 

superstitious 

seize 

sorry 

sure 

senate 

southern 

surface 

sensible 

souvenir 

surfeit 

sensitive 

speak 

surprise 

sentence 

specialty 

surrounded 

sentinel 

specimen 

surveillance 

separate 

speech 

surveyor 

serenade 

spherical 

susceptible 

sergeant 

spying 

suspicious 

serial 

squalor 

sword 

servants 

squirrel 

syllable 

shepherd 

stately 

symmetry 

shield 

statistics 

taming 

shoulders 

stature 

tariff 

shovel 

steadfast 

temperament 

showing 

stereotype 

temporary 

shriek 

stirrup 

tenants 

sickle 

stories 

tendency 

siege 

strategy 

tenement 

sieve 

strawberries 

Thackeray 

significant 

strength 

theater 

similar 

stretched 

their 

simile 

striking 

thief 

simultaneous 

studied 

thousandths 

sincerity 

subtract 

tidal 

situated 

succeed 

till 

APPENDIX  D 

295 

tobacco 

valley 

wherever 

together 

valuable 

which 

tolerable 

variegated 

whistle 

tomatoes 

vegetable 

whither 

to-morrow 

vengeance 

whoever 

torrid 

vertical 

whole 

torturing 

vessel 

wholesome 

totally 

vicinity 

whose 

tourist 

vicious 

why 

tournament 

vicissitude 

wield 

traceable 

victorious 

witness 

traction 

view 

women 

tragedy 

village 

wood 

transferred 

villain 

worries 

transitive 

visitor 

worse 

traveler 

vocabulary 

would  n't 

treasurer 

volume 

wrecked 

tremendous 

voluntary 

writing 

trial 

vying 

wrong 

trudged 

wasn't 

wrought 

truly 

watch 

yacht 

undoubtedly 

wealthy 

yeast 

until 

weapon 

yesterday 

untying 

wear 

yield 

useful 

weariness 

young 

using 

weather 

zoology 

usually 

Wednesday 

vacillate 

whereas 

INDEX 


Abbreviations,  in  letters,  30,  32  ;  on 

envelopes,  37 
Accurate  observations,  60-67 
Adjective  modifiers,  203-204,  243- 

245 
Adjuncts.    See  Modifiers 
Adverb    modifiers,    204-209,    242- 

243,  244-245 
Adversative  conjunctions,  213-215, 

252-254 
Almost  and  wet/,  57 
Ambiguity,  243-245,  250-252 
And,  160-165 
Antecedents,  249-251 
Apologies,  in  letters,  89 
Apostrophe,  22-23 
Appositives,  135 
Argumentation,   45,    in-112,    145- 

146.    See  also  Exercises  24,  26,  29, 

95,  132,  133,  193,  197 
Author's  comment,  125,  195-196 

Beginnings,  89,  11  5-1 17 
Brevity,  132-133 
Business  letters,  27-40 
But,  160-165 

Can  and  tnay,  58 
Capitalization,  13,  15-19,  22,  87 
Cause    and    result,    in    developing 

paragraphs,  224-227 
Character  sketch,  197,  252 
Clauses,  arrangement  of,  244-245 
Climax,  1 18-123 


Coherence,    165-167,    240-277  ;     in 
sentences  and   paragraphs,    241- 
268 ;    in  the  whole   composition, 
268-277 
Collective  nouns,  167 
Colon,  87,  96,  232 
Color-words,  61-64 
Comma,  13-15,  19-20,  28-29,  75-76, 

87.  134,  I35-  172-174 
Comma  blunder,  13-15,  157-158 
Comparison,  128-129,  227-230 
Complex  sentences,  215-216 
Compound  sentences,  213-215 
Conjunctions,      160-165,     -I3~-I4> 
252-261  ;     co-ordinate,     160-165, 
213-214,     253-256;    subordinate, 
256-261 
Connectives,  160-165  !  ^^^  ''^  secur- 
ing coherence,  245-261 
Construction,  shifts  in,  165-170 
Contrast,  130-132 
Conversation,  123-128,  194-197 
Co-ordinate  conjunctions.   160-165, 

213-214,  253-256 
Co-ordination  in  sentences,  160-165 
Copulative    conjunctions,    213-215, 

253 
Correct  usage,  25-26,  57-58,  67-68, 
7S-81,  174-181,  234-237 

Dash,  87,  96,  231 

Definiteness,  41-75  ;  in  business  let- 
ters, 30-40 ;  in  detail,  47-48 ;  in  point 
of  view,  48-55  ;  in  words,  55-75 


297 


298 


FIRST  liOOK  OF  COMPOSmON 


Description,  100-105,  "°'  '33- 
Sir  a/so  Exercises  23,  29,  30,  ;i;^, 
36,  37,  42,  48,  51.  52.  55.  56,  58. 
61,  66,  81,  83,  85,  86,  89,  93,  118, 
123,  175,  216 

Details,  47  ;  choice  of,  99-107,  1 13- 
115,  266-267,  272-274;  in  devel- 
oping paragraphs,  218-219 ;  order 
of,  107-112,  241-242;  subordinat- 
ing, 259-261 

Dictation,  59,  6r,  75,  76,  134,  135. 
172,  230-233 

Direct  and  indirect  discourse,  178, 
181,  193-197 

Disjoined  expressions,  158-159 

/?o,  138 

Double  negative.  137 

Dramatizing,  128 

/ujc/i,  136,  165 

Either,  136,  165 

Ellipses,  236,  265-266 

Endings,  94-95,  11 7- 118 

Endorsement  of  themes,  13 

Envelopes,  35-38 

Esquire,  yj 

Even',  136,  165-166 

Exclamation  mark,  15 

Explanation,  in  developing  para- 
graphs, 220-221 

Exposition,  46-47,  ill,  127-128, 
268  ff.  See  also  Exercises  3,  5,  6, 
22,  27,  29,  31,  75,  90,  94,  no,  112, 
113,  114,  t20,  193,  194,  195,  196, 
19S,  215,  233,  239.  241,  242 

Figures  of  speech,  128-129,  227-230 
Finding  material,  165,  270-274 
Form    of   compositions,    11-13;    of 

letters,  28-38,  85-89,  94-96 
Formal  letters,  95-96 
Friendly  letters,  84-95 


Get,  67-68 

Good  form,  10-40;  rules  and  exer- 
cises in,  76-81,  85-88,  94-96,  134- 
138,  172-181,  230-237 

Grammar,  25-26,  57-58,  67,  78-81, 
136-137,  165,  174-181,  203-207, 
234-237,  242-245,  252-261,  266 

Guiding  words,  246-248 

Homonyms,  282-283 
Hyphen,  77 

Illative  conjunctions,  213-215,  254 

Illustrations,  in  developing  para- 
graphs, 219-220 

Insincerity,  of  ignorance,  2-5 ;  of 
purpose,  6 

Interest,  43,  47,  83-133;  in  letters, 
93-94  ;  of  details,  99 

Interrogation  point,  15 

Interviews,  165 

Invitations,  148-152;  answers  to, 
150-152 

Lay,  174-178 

Letters,  27-40,  83-98,  147-155; 
address,  30,  86 ;  apologies,  89 ; 
body,  31-32,88-94,  148;  envelope, 
35-38;  heading,  30,  86,  148; 
leave-taking,  32,  94-95 ;  saluta- 
tion, 31,  86-88,  96;  signature, 
32-33,  95.  See  also  Exercises  20, 
69,  70,  72,  73,  74,  76,  78,  79,  133, 

135'  i3(^»  137. 138, 139'  MO,  141,142 
Library-work,  270-274 
Lie,  174-178 
Like,  236-237 
Loose  and  periodic  sentences,  209- 

211,  262-263 

May  and  eaii,  58 

Memorizing,  76,  78,  135,  172,  174, 
231,  232 


INDEX 


299 


Metaphors,  128,  229-230 
Modifiers,  203-209,  242-245 
Mood,  168 
Most  and  almost,  57 
Motion,  68-70 

Narration,  ic 5-107,  11 2-1 13,  118- 
119,  123.  See  also  Exercises  3,  22, 
29,  39,  47,  87,  96,  97,  loi,  105,  106, 
107,  108,  109,  113,  115,  123,  174, 
203,  234 

A'either,  136,  165-166 

Newspapers,  272 

A'one,  165-166 

Notes,  accompanying  gifts,  152- 
153;  formal,  147-148;  miscel- 
laneous, 155;  of  gratitude,  154; 
of  introduction,  154;  of  invitation, 
148-152;  unity  of,  147-154;  use 
of,  274-276 

Note-taking,  272-274 

Odors,  66 

Oral  composition :  incidental,  Exer- 
cises 1,  2,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  10,  12,  17, 
19,  21,  24,  26,  28,  32.  34,  35,  38, 
40,  43,  44,  45,  47,  50,  53,  57,  60, 
64,  65,  67,  71,  75,  77,  80,  82,  84, 
88,  91,  92,  98,  99,  100,  102,  103, 
104,  105,  106,  116,  117,  119,  122, 
124,  125,  132,  134,  143,  144,  147, 
14S,  149,  151,  153,  154,  155,  156, 
157,  158,  159,  161,  162,  163,  164, 
165,  167,  i68,  171,  176,  177,  178, 
179,  180,  181,  182,  183,  184,  185, 
186,  188,  189,  191,  192,  200,  201, 

202,  205,  206,  207,  208,  209,  212, 
213,  217,  219,  220,  221,  222,  223, 
224,    225,    226,    227,    230,    231,    232, 

237,  238  ;  formal,  3,  27,  29,  31,  37, 
48,51,56,85,90,93,95,126,127, 
128,  131,  174,  199,  215,  233,  236 


Order  of  sentence  elements,  200-202 
Organization  of  a  theme,  143-145, 

274-276 
Outlines,  142-144,  268-270,  275-276 

Paragraphs,  72  ;  coherence  in,  241- 
26S ;  developed  by  cause  and 
result,  224-227  ;  developed  by 
combination  of  means,  222-224, 
226-227  ;  developed  by  details, 
218-219;  developed  by  explana- 
tion, 220-221  ;  developed  by  illus- 
tration, 219-220;  developed  by 
proof,  224;  good  form  in,  11; 
subordination  in,  261  ;  unity  in. 
140-146,  217;  variety  in,  216-227 

Parallel  construction,  263-264 

Paraphrase,  267-268 

Participles,  243-244,  266-268 

Period,  13-15,  18-19,  22,  24 

Periodic  and  loose  sentences,  209- 
211,  262-263 

Point  of  view,  48-55,  84,  145,  147, 
150,  152 

Post-cards,  97 

Pronouns,  57,  80-81,  131-137,  165- 
167,  236,  248-252 

Proof,  in  developing  paragraphs,  224 

Proportion,  11 2-1 15 

Punctuation,  13-25,  36,  51,  76-77, 
87,96,  134-135'  157-159.  17--174. 
230-234. 

Question  mark,  15,  24-25 
Quotation  marks,  19-21,  24-25 

Raise,  177-180 

Reporting  an  interview,  164 

Kis'e,  177-178 

Scientific  description,  100-105 
See,  137 


300 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  COMPOSFI'IOX 


Semicolon,  6i,  135,  231 

Sentences,  coherence  in,  241-268; 
co-ordination  in,  160-165  ;  declar- 
ative, interrogative,  and  impera- 
tive, 197-199;  ellipses  in,  236, 
265-266 ;  guiding  words  in,  240- 
248;  loose  and  periodic  sentences, 
209-211,  262-263;  order  of,  241- 
245 ;  order  of  elements  in,  200- 
203  ;  parallel  construction  in,  263- 
264  ;  simple,  compound,  and  com- 
plex, 21 1-2 16  ;  unity  in,  1 56-17 1  ; 
variety  in,  197-216 

Sei,  177-178 

S/ia//  and  ioi7/,  1 78-1  Si 

Shifts  in  construction,  165-170 

Similes,  12S,  229-230 

Simple  sentences,  212-213 

Sincerity,i-9,44-47, 55,  59,87-89,93 

S/l,  177-178 

Slang,  70-71 

Social  letters,  84-95 

Somei-vhere,  236 

Sound-words,  64-66 

Spelling  list,  287-296 

Subject  and  predicate,  order  of,  201- 
202 

Subjects  for  composition,  1-5,  85; 
finding  definite,  43-46,  270-272  ; 
narrowing,  43-44  ;  suggested  lists, 
82,  138-139,  182,  237-239,  277 

Subordinate  conjunctions,  256-261 

Subordinating  details,  259 

Suggestion,  129-130 

Symbols  used  in  theme  correcting, 
280 

Synonyms,  71-72,  125,  184-193, 
205-206 

Synopsis,  270 

Tense,  169-170 
Texture,  67 

Themes,  endorsement,  13;  prepara- 
tion of,  11-12;  suggested  lists  of 


topics,  82,  13S-139,  182,  237-239, 

-77 
Th€}-e,  169-170 
Titles  of  themes,  44-46 
Topic  sentence,  108,  144-145,  217- 

227 
Topical  recitation,  145,-252 
Tropes,  128-129,  227-230 

Unity,  46,  140-171  ;  in  thought,  156- 
157  ;  of  form,  157-171  ;  of  notes, 
147-155;  of  paragraphs,  140-146; 
of  sentences,  156-171 

Usage.    See  Correct  usage 

Variety,  183-230,  259;  in  para- 
graphs, 216-227;  in  sentences, 
132,  197-216  ;  in  tropes,  227-230  ; 
in  words,  125,  184-193 

Verbs,  78-So,  137-138,1 66-1 70,174- 
181,  235;  principal  parts,  285- 
286 

Vocabularies,  184-193 

Voice,  active  and  passive,  168,  199- 
200 

lllieii  and  ivhere,  234-235 

Whole  composition,  268-277 

Will  and  shall,  178-181 

Words,  2,  6-9,  25-27,  51,  55,  57-58, 
67-68,  70-71,  75,  78-81,  125,  184- 
193,  203-207,  245-261,  280-283 

Written  compositions :  formal.  Exer- 
cises 3,  20,  22,  23,  29,  30,  31,  33, 

36,  37.  39.  42,  48,  5I'  52.  55.  58. 
61,  66,  69,  70,  72,  73,  76,  79,  81, 
83,  85,  86,  87,  89,  93,  94,  97,  107, 
108,  109,  110,  112,  114,  115,  123, 

127.  130.  133.  135.  136,  137.  138. 
140,  141,  142,  152,  160,  169,  174, 
175,  187,  190,  193,  194,  195.  196. 
197,  198,  203,  204,  210,  214,  216, 
218,  228,  233,  234,  236,  241, 
242 


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